Intel 960 updates; includes new text on COFF directives and symbols.

[deliverable/binutils-gdb.git] / gas / doc / as.texinfo

\input texinfo
@c @tex
@c \special{twoside}
@c @end tex
_if__(_ALL_ARCH__)
@setfilename as.info
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__)
_if__(_AMD29K__ && !_ALL_ARCH__)
@setfilename as-29k.info
_fi__(_AMD29K__ && !_ALL_ARCH__)
_if__(_I960__ && !_ALL_ARCH__)
@setfilename as-960.info
_fi__(_I960__ && !_ALL_ARCH__)
_if__(_M680X0__ && !_ALL_ARCH__)
@setfilename as-m680x0.info
_fi__(_M680X0__ && !_ALL_ARCH__)
@c
@c NOTE: this manual is marked up for preprocessing with a collection
@c of m4 macros called "pretex.m4".  If you see <_if__> and <_fi__>
@c scattered around the source, you have the full source before
@c preprocessing; if you don't, you have the source configured for
@c _HOST__ architectures (and you can of course get the full source,
@c with all configurations, from wherever you got this).
_if__(0)

THIS IS THE FULL SOURCE.  The full source needs to be run through m4
before either tex- or info- formatting: for example,
    m4 pretex.m4 none.m4 m680x0.m4 as.texinfo >as-680x0.texinfo
will produce (assuming your path finds either GNU or SysV m4; Berkeley
won't do) a file suitable for formatting.  See the text in "pretex.m4"
for a fuller explanation (and the macro definitions).

_fi__(0)
@c
@synindex ky cp
@ifinfo
This file documents the GNU Assembler "_AS__".

Copyright (C) 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
are preserved on all copies.

@ignore
Permission is granted to process this file through Tex and print the
results, provided the printed document carries copying permission
notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph
(this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual).

@end ignore
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the
section entitled ``GNU General Public License'' is included exactly as
in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is
distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this
one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions,
except that the section entitled ``GNU General Public License'' may be
included in a translation approved by the author instead of in the
original English.
@end ifinfo
@iftex
@finalout
@end iftex
@smallbook
@setchapternewpage odd
_if__(_ALL_ARCH__)
@settitle Using _AS__
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__)
_if__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
@settitle Using _AS__ (_HOST__)
_fi__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
@titlepage
@title{Using _AS__}
@subtitle{The GNU Assembler}
_if__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
@subtitle{for the _HOST__ family}
_fi__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
@sp 1
@subtitle March 1991
@sp 13
The Free Software Foundation Inc.  thanks The Nice Computer
Company of Australia for loaning Dean Elsner to write the
first (Vax) version of @code{as} for Project GNU.
The proprietors, management and staff of TNCCA thank FSF for
distracting the boss while they got some work
done.
@sp 3
@author{Dean Elsner, Jay Fenlason & friends}
@author{revised by Roland Pesch for Cygnus Support}
@c pesch@cygnus.com
@page
@tex
\def\$#1${{#1}}  % Kluge: collect RCS revision info without $...$
\xdef\manvers{\$Revision$}  % For use in headers, footers too
{\parskip=0pt
\hfill Cygnus Support\par
\hfill \manvers\par
\hfill \TeX{}info \texinfoversion\par
}
%"boxit" macro for figures:
%Modified from Knuth's ``boxit'' macro from TeXbook (answer to exercise 21.3)
\gdef\boxit#1#2{\vbox{\hrule\hbox{\vrule\kern3pt
     \vbox{\parindent=0pt\parskip=0pt\hsize=#1\kern3pt\strut\hfil
#2\hfil\strut\kern3pt}\kern3pt\vrule}\hrule}}%box with visible outline
\gdef\ibox#1#2{\hbox to #1{#2\hfil}\kern8pt}% invisible box
@end tex

@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
Copyright @copyright{} 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
are preserved on all copies.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the
section entitled ``GNU General Public License'' is included exactly as
in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is
distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this
one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions,
except that the section entitled ``GNU General Public License'' may be
included in a translation approved by the author instead of in the
original English.
@end titlepage
@page
@node Top,,,
@ifinfo
This file is a user guide to the GNU assembler @code{_AS__}.
_if__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
This version of the file describes @code{_AS__} configured to generate
code for _HOST__ architectures.
_fi__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
@end ifinfo
@node Overview,,,
@chapter Overview
@iftex
This manual is a user guide to the GNU assembler @code{_AS__}.
_if__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
This version of the manual describes @code{_AS__} configured to generate
code for _HOST__ architectures.
_fi__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
@end iftex

@node Invoking,,,
@section Invoking @code{_AS__}

Here is a brief summary of how to invoke @code{_AS__}.  For details,
@pxref{Options}.

@c We don't use @deffn and friends for the following because they seem
@c to be limited to one line for the header.
@smallexample
  _AS__ [ -D ] [ -f ] [ -I @var{path} ] [ -k ] [ -L ]
   [ -o @var{objfile} ] [ -R ] [ -v ] [ -w ]
_if__(_AMD29K__)
@c am29k has no machine-dependent assembler options
_fi__(_AMD29K__)
_if__(_I960__)
@c see md_parse_option in i960.c
   [ -ACA | -ACA_A | -ACB | -ACC | -AKA | -AKB | -AKC | -AMC ]
   [ -b ] [ -norelax ]
_fi__(_I960__)
_if__(_M680X0__)
   [ -l ] [ -mc68000 | -mc68010 | -mc68020 ]
_fi__(_M680X0__)
   [ -- | @var{files} @dots{} ]
@end smallexample

@table @code

@item -D
This option is accepted only for script compatibility with calls to
other assemblers; it has no effect on @code{_AS__}.

@item -f
``fast''---skip preprocessing (assume source is compiler output)

@item -I @var{path}
Add @var{path} to the search list for @code{.include} directives

@item -k
_if__(_AMD29K__ || _I960__)
This option is accepted but has no effect on the _HOST__ family.
_fi__(_AMD29K__ || _I960__)
_if__(!(_AMD29K__||_I960__))
Issue warnings when difference tables altered for long displacements
_fi__(!(_AMD29K__||_I960__))

@item -L
Keep (in symbol table) local symbols, starting with @samp{L}

@item -o @var{objfile}
Name the object-file output from @code{_AS__}

@item -R
Fold data segment into text segment

@item -W
Suppress warning messages

_if__(_I960__)
@item -ACA | -ACA_A | -ACB | -ACC | -AKA | -AKB | -AKC | -AMC
Specify which variant of the 960 architecture is the target.

@item -b
Add code to collect statistics about branches taken.

@item -norelax
Do not alter compare-and-branch instructions for long displaements;
error if necessary.
_fi__(_I960__)

_if__(_M680X0__)
@item -l
Shorten references to undefined symbols, to one word instead of two

@item -mc68000 | -mc68010 | -mc68020
Specify what processor in the 68000 family is the target (default 68020)
_fi__(_M680X0__)

@item -- | @var{files} @dots{}
Source files to assemble, or standard input
@end table

@node Manual, GNU Assembler, Invoking, Overview
@section Structure of this Manual
This document is intended to describe what you need to know to use
@code{_AS__}.  We cover the syntax expected in source files, including
notation for symbols, constants, and expressions; the directives that
@code{_AS__} understands; and of course how to invoke @code{_AS__}.

_if__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
We also cover special features in the _HOST__
configuration of @code{_AS__}, including assembler directives.
_fi__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
_if__(_ALL_ARCH__)
This document also describes some of the machine-dependent features of
various flavors of the assembler.
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__)
_if__(_INTERNALS__)
This document also describes how the assembler works internally, and
provides some information that may be useful to people attempting to
port the assembler to another machine.
_fi__(_INTERNALS__)
@refill

On the other hand, this manual is @emph{not} intended as an introduction
to programming in assembly language---let alone programming in general!
In a similar vein, we make no attempt to introduce the machine
architecture; we do @emph{not} describe the instruction set, standard
mnemonics, registers or addressing modes that are standard to a
particular architecture.  You may want to consult the manufacturer's
machine architecture manual for this information.


@c I think this is premature---pesch@cygnus.com, 17jan1991
@ignore
Throughout this document, we assume that you are running @dfn{GNU},
the portable operating system from the @dfn{Free Software
Foundation, Inc.}.  This restricts our attention to certain kinds of
computer (in particular, the kinds of computers that GNU can run on);
once this assumption is granted examples and definitions need less
qualification.

@code{_AS__} is part of a team of programs that turn a high-level
human-readable series of instructions into a low-level
computer-readable series of instructions.  Different versions of
@code{_AS__} are used for different kinds of computer.
@end ignore

@c There used to be a section "Terminology" here, which defined
@c "contents", "byte", "word", and "long".  Defining "word" to any
@c particular size is confusing when the .word directive may generate 16
@c bits on one machine and 32 bits on another; in general, for the user
@c version of this manual, none of these terms seem essential to define.
@c They were used very little even in the former draft of the manual;
@c this draft makes an effort to avoid them (except in names of
@c directives).

@node GNU Assembler,,,
@section _AS__, the GNU Assembler
GNU @code{as} is really a family of assemblers.  
_if__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
This manual describes @samp{_AS__}, a member of that family which is
configured for the _HOST__ architectures.
_fi__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
If you use (or have used) the GNU assembler on another architecture, you
should find a fairly similar environment.  Each version has much in
common with the others, including object file formats, most assembler
directives (often called @dfn{pseudo-ops)} and assembler syntax.@refill

@code{_AS__} is primarily intended to assemble the output of the GNU C
compiler @code{_GCC__} for use by the linker @code{_LD__}.  Nevertheless,
we've tried to make @code{_AS__} assemble correctly everything that the native
assembler would.
_if__(_VAX__)
Any exceptions are documented explicitly (@pxref{_MACH_DEP__}).
_fi__(_VAX__)
_if__(_ALL_ARCH__||_M680X0__)
This doesn't mean @code{_AS__} always uses the same syntax as another
assembler for the same architecture; for example, we know of several
incompatible versions of 680x0 assembly language syntax.
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__||_M680X0__)

Unlike older assemblers, @code{_AS__} is designed to assemble a source
program in one pass of the source file.  This has a subtle impact on the
@kbd{.org} directive (@pxref{Org}).

@node Object Formats,,,
@section Object File Formats
The GNU assembler can be configured to produce several alternative
object file formats.  
_if__(!_ALL_ARCH__)
_if__(!_I960__)
@code{_AS__} is configured to produce @code{a.out} format object
files.@refill
_fi__(!_I960__)
_if__(_I960__)
@code{_AS__} can be configured to produce either @code{b.out} or COFF
format object files.
_fi__(_I960__)
_fi__(!_ALL_ARCH__)

@node Command Line,,,
@section Command Line

After the program name @code{_AS__}, the command line may contain
options and file names.  Options may be in any order, and may be
before, after, or between file names.  The order of file names is
significant.

@file{--} (two hyphens) by itself names the standard input file
explicitly, as one of the files for @code{_AS__} to assemble.

Except for @samp{--} any command line argument that begins with a
hyphen (@samp{-}) is an option.  Each option changes the behavior of
@code{_AS__}.  No option changes the way another option works.  An
option is a @samp{-} followed by one or more letters; the case of
the letter is important.   All options are optional.

Some options expect exactly one file name to follow them.  The file
name may either immediately follow the option's letter (compatible
with older assemblers) or it may be the next command argument (GNU
standard).  These two command lines are equivalent:

@smallexample
_AS__ -o my-object-file.o mumble.s
_AS__ -omy-object-file.o mumble.s
@end smallexample

@node Input Files, Object, Command Line, Overview
@section Input Files

We use the phrase @dfn{source program}, abbreviated @dfn{source}, to
describe the program input to one run of @code{_AS__}.  The program may
be in one or more files; how the source is partitioned into files
doesn't change the meaning of the source.

@c I added "con" prefix to "catenation" just to prove I can overcome my
@c APL training...   pesch@cygnus.com
The source program is a concatenation of the text in all the files, in the
order specified.

Each time you run @code{_AS__} it assembles exactly one source
program.  The source program is made up of one or more files.
(The standard input is also a file.)

You give @code{_AS__} a command line that has zero or more input file
names.  The input files are read (from left file name to right).  A
command line argument (in any position) that has no special meaning
is taken to be an input file name.

If @code{_AS__} is given no file names it attempts to read one input file
from the @code{_AS__} standard input, which is normally your terminal.  You
may have to type @key{ctl-D} to tell @code{_AS__} there is no more program
to assemble.

Use @samp{--} if you need to explicitly name the standard input file
in your command line.

If the source is empty, @code{_AS__} will produce a small, empty object
file.

@node Filenames,  , Input Files, Input Files
@subsection Filenames and Line-numbers
There are two ways of locating a line in the input file (or files) and both
are used in reporting error messages.  One way refers to a line
number in a physical file; the other refers to a line number in a
``logical'' file.

@dfn{Physical files} are those files named in the command line given
to @code{_AS__}.

@dfn{Logical files} are simply names declared explicitly by assembler
directives; they bear no relation to physical files.  Logical file names
help error messages reflect the original source file, when @code{_AS__}
source is itself synthesized from other files.  @xref{App-File}.

@node Object, Errors, Input Files, Overview
@section Output (Object) File
Every time you run @code{_AS__} it produces an output file, which is
your assembly language program translated into numbers.  This file
is the object file, named @code{a.out} unless you tell @code{_AS__} to
give it another name by using the @code{-o} option.  Conventionally,
object file names end with @file{.o}.  The default name of
@file{a.out} is used for historical reasons:  older assemblers were
capable of assembling self-contained programs directly into a
runnable program.
@c This may still work, but hasn't been tested.

The object file is meant for input to the linker @code{_LD__}.  It contains
assembled program code, information to help @code{_LD__} integrate
the assembled program into a runnable file, and (optionally) symbolic
information for the debugger.

@comment link above to some info file(s) like the description of a.out.
@comment don't forget to describe GNU info as well as Unix lossage.

@node Errors, Options, Object, Overview
@section Error and Warning Messages

@code{_AS__} may write warnings and error messages to the standard error
file (usually your terminal).  This should not happen when @code{_AS__} is
run automatically by a compiler.  Warnings report an assumption made so
that @code{_AS__} could keep assembling a flawed program; errors report a
grave problem that stops the assembly.

Warning messages have the format
@smallexample
file_name:@b{NNN}:Warning Message Text
@end smallexample
@noindent(where @b{NNN} is a line number).  If a logical file name has
been given (@pxref{App-File}) it is used for the filename, otherwise the
name of the current input file is used.  If a logical line number was
given
_if__(!_AMD29K__)
(@pxref{Line})
_fi__(!_AMD29K__)
_if__(_AMD29K__)
(@pxref{Ln})
_fi__(_AMD29K__)
then it is used to calculate the number printed,
otherwise the actual line in the current source file is printed.  The
message text is intended to be self explanatory (in the grand Unix
tradition). @refill

Error messages have the format
@smallexample
file_name:@b{NNN}:FATAL:Error Message Text
@end smallexample
The file name and line number are derived as for warning
messages.  The actual message text may be rather less explanatory
because many of them aren't supposed to happen.

@node Options,  , Errors, Overview
@section Options
This section describes command-line options available in @emph{all}
versions of the GNU assembler; @pxref{_MACH_DEP__}, for options specific
to the _HOST__.

@subsection @code{-D}
This option has no effect whatsoever, but it is accepted to make it more
likely that scripts written for other assemblers will also work with
@code{_AS__}.

@subsection Work Faster: @code{-f}
@samp{-f} should only be used when assembling programs written by a
(trusted) compiler.  @samp{-f} stops the assembler from pre-processing
the input file(s) before assembling them.
@quotation
@emph{Warning:} if the files actually need to be pre-processed (if they
contain comments, for example), @code{_AS__} will not work correctly if
@samp{-f} is used.
@end quotation

@subsection @code{.include} search path: @code{-I} @var{path}
Use this option to add a @var{path} to the list of directories
@code{_AS__} will search for files specified in @code{.include} directives
(@pxref{Include}).  You may use @code{-I} as many times as necessary to
include a variety of paths.  The current working directory is always
searched first; after that, @code{_AS__} searches any @samp{-I} directories
in the same order as they were specified (left to right) on the command
line.

@subsection Difference Tables: @code{-k}
_if__(_AMD29K__ || _I960__)
On the _HOST__ family, this option is allowed, but has no effect.  It is
permitted for compatibility with the GNU assembler on other platforms,
where it can be used to warn when the assembler alters the machine code
generated for @samp{.word} directives in difference tables.  The _HOST__
family does not have the addressing limitations that sometimes lead to this
alteration on other platforms.
_fi__(_AMD29K__ || _I960__)

_if__(! (_AMD29K__ || _I960__) )
@code{_AS__} sometimes alters the code emitted for directives of the form
@samp{.word @var{sym1}-@var{sym2}}; @pxref{Word}.
You can use the @samp{-k} option if you want a warning issued when this
is done.
_fi__(! (_AMD29K__ || _I960__) )

@subsection Include Local Labels: @code{-L}
Labels beginning with @samp{L} (upper case only) are called @dfn{local
labels}. @xref{Symbol Names}.  Normally you don't see such labels when
debugging, because they are intended for the use of programs (like
compilers) that compose assembler programs, not for your notice.
Normally both @code{_AS__} and @code{_LD__} discard such labels, so you don't
normally debug with them.

This option tells @code{_AS__} to retain those @samp{L@dots{}} symbols
in the object file.  Usually if you do this you also tell the linker
@code{_LD__} to preserve symbols whose names begin with @samp{L}.

@subsection Name the Object File: @code{-o}
There is always one object file output when you run @code{_AS__}.  By
default it has the name @file{a.out}.  You use this option (which
takes exactly one filename) to give the object file a different name.

Whatever the object file is called, @code{_AS__} will overwrite any
existing file of the same name.

@subsection Join Data and Text Segments: @code{-R}
@code{-R} tells @code{_AS__} to write the object file as if all
data-segment data lives in the text segment.  This is only done at
the very last moment:  your binary data are the same, but data
segment parts are relocated differently.  The data segment part of
your object file is zero bytes long because all it bytes are
appended to the text segment.  (@xref{Segments}.)

When you specify @code{-R} it would be possible to generate shorter
address displacements (because we don't have to cross between text and
data segment).  We refrain from doing this simply for compatibility with
older versions of @code{_AS__}.  In future, @code{-R} may work this way.

@subsection Suppress Warnings: @code{-W}
@code{_AS__} should never give a warning or error message when
assembling compiler output.  But programs written by people often
cause @code{_AS__} to give a warning that a particular assumption was
made.  All such warnings are directed to the standard error file.
If you use this option, no warnings are issued.  This option only
affects the warning messages: it does not change any particular of how
@code{_AS__} assembles your file.  Errors, which stop the assembly, are
still reported.

@node Syntax, Segments, Overview, Top
@chapter Syntax
This chapter describes the machine-independent syntax allowed in a
source file.  @code{_AS__} syntax is similar to what many other assemblers
use; it is inspired in BSD 4.2
_if__(!_VAX__)
assembler. @refill
_fi__(!_VAX__)
_if__(_VAX__)
assembler, except that @code{_AS__} does not assemble Vax bit-fields.
_fi__(_VAX__)

@node Pre-processing, Whitespace, Syntax, Syntax
@section Pre-processing

The pre-processor:
@itemize @bullet
@item
adjusts and removes extra whitespace.  It leaves one space or tab before
the keywords on a line, and turns any other whitespace on the line into
a single space.

@item
removes all comments, replacing them with a single space, or an
appropriate number of newlines.

@item
converts character constants into the appropriate numeric values.
@end itemize

Excess whitespace, comments, and character constants
cannot be used in the portions of the input text that are not
pre-processed.

If the first line of an input file is @code{#NO_APP} or the @samp{-f}
option is given, the input file will not be pre-processed.  Within such
an input file, parts of the file can be pre-processed by putting a line
that says @code{#APP} before the text that should be pre-processed, and
putting a line that says @code{#NO_APP} after them.  This feature is
mainly intend to support @code{asm} statements in compilers whose output
normally does not need to be pre-processed.

@node Whitespace, Comments, Pre-processing, Syntax
@section Whitespace
@dfn{Whitespace} is one or more blanks or tabs, in any order.
Whitespace is used to separate symbols, and to make programs neater
for people to read.  Unless within character constants
(@pxref{Characters}), any whitespace means the same as exactly one
space.

@node Comments, Symbol Intro, Whitespace, Syntax
@section Comments
There are two ways of rendering comments to @code{_AS__}.  In both
cases the comment is equivalent to one space.

Anything from @samp{/*} through the next @samp{*/} is a comment.
This means you may not nest these comments.

@smallexample
/*
  The only way to include a newline ('\n') in a comment
  is to use this sort of comment.
*/

/* This sort of comment does not nest. */
@end smallexample

Anything from the @dfn{line comment} character to the next newline
is considered a comment and is ignored.  The line comment character is
_if__(_VAX__ || _I960__)
@samp{#} on the _HOST__;
_fi__(_VAX__ || _I960__)
_if__(_M680X0__)
@samp{|} on the 680x0;
_fi__(_M680X0__)
_if__(_AMD29K__)
@samp{;} for the AMD 29K family;
_fi__(_AMD29K__)
@pxref{_MACH_DEP__}.  @refill

_if__(_ALL_ARCH__)
On some machines there are two different line comment characters.  One
will only begin a comment if it is the first non-whitespace character on
a line, while the other will always begin a comment.
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__)

To be compatible with past assemblers a special interpretation is
given to lines that begin with @samp{#}.  Following the @samp{#} an
absolute expression (@pxref{Expressions}) is expected:  this will be
the logical line number of the @b{next} line.  Then a string
(@xref{Strings}.) is allowed: if present it is a new logical file
name.  The rest of the line, if any, should be whitespace.

If the first non-whitespace characters on the line are not numeric,
the line is ignored.  (Just like a comment.)
@smallexample
                          # This is an ordinary comment.
# 42-6 "new_file_name"    # New logical file name
                          # This is logical line # 36.
@end smallexample
This feature is deprecated, and may disappear from future versions
of @code{_AS__}.

@node Symbol Intro, Statements, Comments, Syntax
@section Symbols
A @dfn{symbol} is one or more characters chosen from the set of all
letters (both upper and lower case), digits and the three characters
@samp{_.$}.  No symbol may begin with a digit.  Case is significant.
There is no length limit: all characters are significant.  Symbols are
delimited by characters not in that set, or by the beginning of a file
(since the source program must end with a newline, the end of a file is
not a possible symbol delimiter).  @xref{Symbols}.

@node Statements, Constants, Symbol Intro, Syntax
@section Statements
_if__(!_AMD29K__)
A @dfn{statement} ends at a newline character (@samp{\n}) or at a
semicolon (@samp{;}).  The newline or semicolon is considered part of
the preceding statement.  Newlines and semicolons within character
constants are an exception: they don't end statements.
_fi__(!_AMD29K__)
_if__(_AMD29K__)
A @dfn{statement} ends at a newline character (@samp{\n}) or an ``at''
sign (@samp{@@}).  The newline or at sign is considered part of the
preceding statement.  Newlines and at signs within character constants
are an exception: they don't end statements.
_fi__(_AMD29K__)

It is an error to end any statement with end-of-file:  the last
character of any input file should be a newline.@refill

You may write a statement on more than one line if you put a
backslash (@kbd{\}) immediately in front of any newlines within the
statement.  When @code{_AS__} reads a backslashed newline both
characters are ignored.  You can even put backslashed newlines in
the middle of symbol names without changing the meaning of your
source program.

An empty statement is allowed, and may include whitespace.  It is ignored.

@c "key symbol" is not used elsewhere in the document; seems pedantic to
@c @defn{} it in that case, as was done previously...  pesch@cygnus.com,
@c 13feb91.
A statement begins with zero or more labels, optionally followed by a
key symbol which determines what kind of statement it is.  The key
symbol determines the syntax of the rest of the statement.  If the
symbol begins with a dot @samp{.} then the statement is an assembler
directive: typically valid for any computer.  If the symbol begins with
a letter the statement is an assembly language @dfn{instruction}: it
will assemble into a machine language instruction.  
_if__(_ALL_ARCH__)
Different versions of @code{_AS__} for different computers will
recognize different instructions.  In fact, the same symbol may
represent a different instruction in a different computer's assembly
language.@refill
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__)

A label is a symbol immediately followed by a colon (@code{:}).
Whitespace before a label or after a colon is permitted, but you may not
have whitespace between a label's symbol and its colon. @xref{Labels}.

@smallexample
label:     .directive    followed by something
another$label:           # This is an empty statement.
           instruction   operand_1, operand_2, @dots{}
@end smallexample

@node Constants,  , Statements, Syntax
@section Constants
A constant is a number, written so that its value is known by
inspection, without knowing any context.  Like this:
@smallexample
.byte  74, 0112, 092, 0x4A, 0X4a, 'J, '\J # All the same value.
.ascii "Ring the bell\7"                  # A string constant.
.octa  0x123456789abcdef0123456789ABCDEF0 # A bignum.
.float 0f-314159265358979323846264338327\
95028841971.693993751E-40                 # - pi, a flonum.
@end smallexample

@node Characters, Numbers, Constants, Constants
@subsection Character Constants
There are two kinds of character constants.  A @dfn{character} stands
for one character in one byte and its value may be used in
numeric expressions.  String constants (properly called string
@emph{literals}) are potentially many bytes and their values may not be
used in arithmetic expressions.

@node Strings, Chars, Characters, Characters
@subsubsection Strings
A @dfn{string} is written between double-quotes.  It may contain
double-quotes or null characters.  The way to get special characters
into a string is to @dfn{escape} these characters: precede them with
a backslash @samp{\} character.  For example @samp{\\} represents
one backslash:  the first @code{\} is an escape which tells
@code{_AS__} to interpret the second character literally as a backslash
(which prevents @code{_AS__} from recognizing the second @code{\} as an
escape character).  The complete list of escapes follows.

@table @kbd
@c      @item \a
@c      Mnemonic for ACKnowledge; for ASCII this is octal code 007.
@item \b
Mnemonic for backspace; for ASCII this is octal code 010.
@c      @item \e
@c      Mnemonic for EOText; for ASCII this is octal code 004.
@item \f
Mnemonic for FormFeed; for ASCII this is octal code 014.
@item \n
Mnemonic for newline; for ASCII this is octal code 012.
@c      @item \p
@c      Mnemonic for prefix; for ASCII this is octal code 033, usually known as @code{escape}.
@item \r
Mnemonic for carriage-Return; for ASCII this is octal code 015.
@c      @item \s
@c      Mnemonic for space; for ASCII this is octal code 040.  Included for compliance with
@c      other assemblers.
@item \t
Mnemonic for horizontal Tab; for ASCII this is octal code 011.
@c      @item \v
@c      Mnemonic for Vertical tab; for ASCII this is octal code 013.
@c      @item \x @var{digit} @var{digit} @var{digit}
@c      A hexadecimal character code.  The numeric code is 3 hexadecimal digits.
@item \ @var{digit} @var{digit} @var{digit}
An octal character code.  The numeric code is 3 octal digits.
For compatibility with other Unix systems, 8 and 9 are accepted as digits:
for example, @code{\008} has the value 010, and @code{\009} the value 011.
@item \\
Represents one @samp{\} character.
@c      @item \'
@c      Represents one @samp{'} (accent acute) character.
@c      This is needed in single character literals
@c      (@xref{Characters}.) to represent
@c      a @samp{'}.
@item \"
Represents one @samp{"} character.  Needed in strings to represent
this character, because an unescaped @samp{"} would end the string.
@item \ @var{anything-else}
Any other character when escaped by @kbd{\} will give a warning, but
assemble as if the @samp{\} was not present.  The idea is that if
you used an escape sequence you clearly didn't want the literal
interpretation of the following character.  However @code{_AS__} has no
other interpretation, so @code{_AS__} knows it is giving you the wrong
code and warns you of the fact.
@end table

Which characters are escapable, and what those escapes represent,
varies widely among assemblers.  The current set is what we think
the BSD 4.2 assembler recognizes, and is a subset of what most C
compilers recognize.  If you are in doubt, don't use an escape
sequence.

@node Chars,  , Strings, Characters
@subsubsection Characters
A single character may be written as a single quote immediately
followed by that character.  The same escapes apply to characters as
to strings.  So if you want to write the character backslash, you
must write @kbd{'\\} where the first @code{\} escapes the second
@code{\}.  As you can see, the quote is an acute accent, not a
grave accent.  A newline
_if__(!_AMD29K__)
(or semicolon @samp{;})
_fi__(!_AMD29K__)
_if__(_AMD29K__)
(or at sign @samp{@@})
_fi__(_AMD29K__)
immediately following an acute accent is taken as a literal character
and does not count as the end of a statement.  The value of a character
constant in a numeric expression is the machine's byte-wide code for
that character.  @code{_AS__} assumes your character code is ASCII:
@kbd{'A} means 65, @kbd{'B} means 66, and so on. @refill

@node Numbers,,,
@subsection Number Constants
@code{_AS__} distinguishes three kinds of numbers according to how they
are stored in the target machine.  @emph{Integers} are numbers that
would fit into an @code{int} in the C language.  @emph{Bignums} are
integers, but they are stored in more than 32 bits.  @emph{Flonums}
are floating point numbers, described below.

@node Integers,,,
@subsubsection Integers
A binary integer is @samp{0b} or @samp{0B} followed by zero or more of
the binary digits @samp{01}.

An octal integer is @samp{0} followed by zero or more of the octal
digits (@samp{01234567}).

A decimal integer starts with a non-zero digit followed by zero or
more digits (@samp{0123456789}).

A hexadecimal integer is @samp{0x} or @samp{0X} followed by one or
more hexadecimal digits chosen from @samp{0123456789abcdefABCDEF}.

Integers have the usual values.  To denote a negative integer, use
the prefix operator @samp{-} discussed under expressions
(@pxref{Prefix Ops}).

@node Bignums,,,
@subsubsection Bignums
A @dfn{bignum} has the same syntax and semantics as an integer
except that the number (or its negative) takes more than 32 bits to
represent in binary.  The distinction is made because in some places
integers are permitted while bignums are not.

@node Flonums,,,
@subsubsection Flonums
A @dfn{flonum} represents a floating point number.  The translation is
complex: a decimal floating point number from the text is converted by
@code{_AS__} to a generic binary floating point number of more than
sufficient precision.  This generic floating point number is converted
to a particular computer's floating point format (or formats) by a
portion of @code{_AS__} specialized to that computer.

A flonum is written by writing (in order)
@itemize @bullet
@item
The digit @samp{0}.
@item
_if__(_AMD29K__)
One of the letters @samp{DFPRSX} (in upper or lower case), to tell
@code{_AS__} the rest of the number is a flonum.
_fi__(_AMD29K__)
_if__(_I960__)
One of the letters @samp{DFT} (in upper or lower case), to tell
@code{_AS__} the rest of the number is a flonum.
_fi__(_I960__)
_if__(!(_AMD29K__||_I960__))
A letter, to tell @code{_AS__} the rest of the number is a flonum.  @kbd{e}
is recommended.  Case is not important.  (Any otherwise illegal letter
will work here, but that might be changed.  Vax BSD 4.2 assembler seems
to allow any of @samp{defghDEFGH}.)
_fi__(!(_AMD29K__||_I960__))
@item
An optional sign: either @samp{+} or @samp{-}.
@item
An optional @dfn{integer part}: zero or more decimal digits.
@item
An optional @dfn{fraction part}: @samp{.} followed by zero
or more decimal digits.
@item
An optional exponent, consisting of:
@itemize @bullet
@item
An @samp{E} or @samp{e}.
@c I can't find a config where "EXP_CHARS" is other than 'eE', but in
@c principle this can perfectly well be different on different targets.
@item
Optional sign: either @samp{+} or @samp{-}.
@item
One or more decimal digits.
@end itemize
@end itemize

At least one of @var{integer part} or @var{fraction part} must be
present.  The floating point number has the usual base-10 value.

@code{_AS__} does all processing using integers.  Flonums are computed
independently of any floating point hardware in the computer running
@code{_AS__}.

_if__(_I960__)
@c Bit fields are written as a general facility but are also controlled
@c by a conditional-compilation flag---which is as of now (21mar91)
@c turned on only by the i960 config of GAS.
@node Bit Fields,,,
@subsubsection Bit Fields
You can also define numeric constants as @dfn{bit fields}.
specify two numbers separated by a colon---
@example
@var{mask}:@var{value}
@end example
@noindent
the first will act as a mask; @code{_AS__} will bitwise-and it with the
second value.

The resulting number is then packed
_if__(_ALL_ARCH__)
(in host-dependent byte order)
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__)
into a field whose width depends on which assembler directive has the
bit-field as its argument.  Overflow (a result from the bitwise and
requiring more binary digits to represent) is not an error; instead,
more constants are generated, of the specified width, beginning with the
least significant digits.@refill

The directives @code{.byte}, @code{.hword}, @code{.int}, @code{.long},
@code{.short}, and @code{.word} accept bit-field arguments.
_fi__(_I960__)

@node Segments, Symbols, Syntax, Top
@chapter Segments and Relocation

@node Segs Background, _LD__ Segments, Segments, Segments
@section Background
Roughly, a segment is a range of addresses, with no gaps; all data
``in'' those addresses is treated the same for some particular purpose.
For example there may be a ``read only'' segment.

The linker @code{_LD__} reads many object files (partial programs) and
combines their contents to form a runnable program.  When @code{_AS__}
emits an object file, the partial program is assumed to start at address
0.  @code{_LD__} will assign the final addresses the partial program
occupies, so that different partial programs don't overlap.  This is
actually an over-simplification, but it will suffice to explain how
@code{_AS__} uses segments.

@code{_LD__} moves blocks of bytes of your program to their run-time
addresses.  These blocks slide to their run-time addresses as rigid
units; their length does not change and neither does the order of bytes
within them.  Such a rigid unit is called a @emph{segment}.  Assigning
run-time addresses to segments is called @dfn{relocation}.  It includes
the task of adjusting mentions of object-file addresses so they refer to
the proper run-time addresses.

An object file written by @code{_AS__} has three segments, any of which may
be empty.  These are named @dfn{text}, @dfn{data} and @dfn{bss}
segments.  
_if__(_COFF__)

@c Thanks, Rich!
@quotation
@emph{Warning:} @code{_AS__} can only assign output to one of these
three segments, even when configured for COFF output; the
@code{.section} directive is not supported.
@end quotation
_fi__(_COFF__)

Within the object file, the text segment starts at address @code{0}, the
data segment follows, and the bss segment follows the data segment.

To let @code{_LD__} know which data will change when the segments are
relocated, and how to change that data, @code{_AS__} also writes to the
object file details of the relocation needed.  To perform relocation
@code{_LD__} must know, each time an address in the object
file is mentioned:
@itemize @bullet
@item
Where in the object file is the beginning of this reference to
an address?
@item
How long (in bytes) is this reference?
@item
Which segment does the address refer to?  What is the numeric value of
@display
(@var{address}) @minus{} (@var{start-address of segment})?
@end display
@item
Is the reference to an address ``Program-Counter relative''?
@end itemize

In fact, every address @code{_AS__} ever uses is expressed as
@display
(@var{segment}) + (@var{offset into segment})
@end display
@noindent
Further, every expression @code{_AS__} computes is of this segmented
nature.  @dfn{Absolute expression} means an expression with segment
``absolute'' (@pxref{_LD__ Segments}).  A @dfn{pass1 expression} means
an expression with segment ``pass1'' (@pxref{_AS__ Segments}).  In this
manual we use the notation @{@var{segname} @var{N}@} to mean ``offset
@var{N} into segment @var{segname}''.

Apart from text, data and bss segments you need to know about the
@dfn{absolute} segment.  When @code{_LD__} mixes partial programs,
addresses in the absolute segment remain unchanged.  That is, address
@code{@{absolute 0@}} is ``relocated'' to run-time address 0 by @code{_LD__}.
Although two partial programs' data segments will not overlap addresses
after linking, @emph{by definition} their absolute segments will overlap.
Address @code{@{absolute@ 239@}} in one partial program will always be the same
address when the program is running as address @code{@{absolute@ 239@}} in any
other partial program.

The idea of segments is extended to the @dfn{undefined} segment.  Any
address whose segment is unknown at assembly time is by definition
rendered @{undefined @var{U}@}---where @var{U} will be filled in later.
Since numbers are always defined, the only way to generate an undefined
address is to mention an undefined symbol.  A reference to a named
common block would be such a symbol: its value is unknown at assembly
time so it has segment @emph{undefined}.

By analogy the word @emph{segment} is used to describe groups of segments in
the linked program.  @code{_LD__} puts all partial programs' text
segments in contiguous addresses in the linked program.  It is
customary to refer to the @emph{text segment} of a program, meaning all
the addresses of all partial program's text segments.  Likewise for
data and bss segments.

Some segments are manipulated by @code{_LD__}; others are invented for
use of @code{_AS__} and have no meaning except during assembly.

@node _LD__ Segments, _AS__ Segments, Segs Background, Segments
@section _LD__ Segments
@code{_LD__} deals with just five kinds of segments, summarized below.

@table @strong

@item text segment
@itemx data segment
These segments hold your program.  @code{_AS__} and @code{_LD__} treat them as
separate but equal segments.  Anything you can say of one segment is
true of the other.  When the program is running, however, it is
customary for the text segment to be unalterable.  The
text segment is often shared among processes: it will contain
instructions, constants and the like.  The data segment of a running
program is usually alterable: for example, C variables would be stored
in the data segment.

@item bss segment
This segment contains zeroed bytes when your program begins running.  It
is used to hold unitialized variables or common storage.  The length of
each partial program's bss segment is important, but because it starts
out containing zeroed bytes there is no need to store explicit zero
bytes in the object file.  The bss segment was invented to eliminate
those explicit zeros from object files.

@item absolute segment
Address 0 of this segment is always ``relocated'' to runtime address 0.
This is useful if you want to refer to an address that @code{_LD__} must
not change when relocating.  In this sense we speak of absolute
addresses being ``unrelocatable'': they don't change during relocation.

@item undefined segment
This ``segment'' is a catch-all for address references to objects not in
the preceding segments.
@c FIXME: ref to some other doc on obj-file formats could go here.

@end table

An idealized example of the three relocatable segments follows.  Memory
addresses are on the horizontal axis.

@ifinfo
@smallexample
                      +-----+----+--+
partial program # 1:  |ttttt|dddd|00|
                      +-----+----+--+

                      text   data bss
                      seg.   seg. seg.

                      +---+---+---+
partial program # 2:  |TTT|DDD|000|
                      +---+---+---+

                      +--+---+-----+--+----+---+-----+~~
linked program:       |  |TTT|ttttt|  |dddd|DDD|00000|
                      +--+---+-----+--+----+---+-----+~~

    addresses:        0 @dots{}
@end smallexample
@end ifinfo
@tex

{\it Partial program \#1: }

\line{\ibox{2.5cm}{\tt text}\ibox{2cm}{\tt data}\ibox{1cm}{\tt bss}\hfil}
\line{\boxit{2.5cm}{\tt ttttt}\boxit{2cm}{\tt dddd}\boxit{1cm}{\tt 00}\hfil}

{\it Partial program \#2:}

\line{\ibox{1cm}{\tt text}\ibox{1.5cm}{\tt data}\ibox{1cm}{\tt bss}\hfil}
\line{\boxit{1cm}{\tt TTT}\boxit{1.5cm}{\tt DDDD}\boxit{1cm}{\tt 000}\hfil}

{\it linked program: }

\line{\ibox{.5cm}{}\ibox{1cm}{\tt text}\ibox{2.5cm}{}\ibox{.75cm}{}\ibox{2cm}{\tt data}\ibox{1.5cm}{}\ibox{2cm}{\tt bss}\hfil}
\line{\boxit{.5cm}{}\boxit{1cm}{\tt TTT}\boxit{2.5cm}{\tt
ttttt}\boxit{.75cm}{}\boxit{2cm}{\tt dddd}\boxit{1.5cm}{\tt
DDDD}\boxit{2cm}{\tt 00000}\ \dots\hfil}

{\it addresses:}

\line{0\dots\hfil}

@end tex

@node _AS__ Segments, Sub-Segments, _LD__ Segments, Segments
@section _AS__ Internal Segments
These segments are invented for the internal use of @code{_AS__}.  They
have no meaning at run-time.  You don't need to know about these
segments except that they might be mentioned in the @code{_AS__} warning
messages.  These segments are invented to permit the value of every
expression in your assembly language program to be a segmented
address.

@table @b
@item absent segment
An expression was expected and none was
found.

@item goof segment
An internal assembler logic error has been
found.  This means there is a bug in the assembler.

@item grand segment
A @dfn{grand number} is a bignum or a flonum, but not an integer.  If a
number can't be written as a C @code{int} constant, it is a grand
number.  @code{_AS__} has to remember that a flonum or a bignum does not
fit into 32 bits, and cannot be an argument (@pxref{Arguments}) in an
expression: this is done by making a flonum or bignum be in segment
grand.  This is purely for internal @code{_AS__} convenience; grand
segment behaves similarly to absolute segment.

@item pass1 segment
The expression was impossible to evaluate in the first pass.  The
assembler will attempt a second pass (second reading of the source) to
evaluate the expression.  Your expression mentioned an undefined symbol
in a way that defies the one-pass (segment + offset in segment) assembly
process.  No compiler need emit such an expression.

@quotation
@emph{Warning:} the second pass is currently not implemented.  @code{_AS__}
will abort with an error message if one is required.
@end quotation

@item difference segment
As an assist to the C compiler, expressions of the forms
@display
   (@var{undefined symbol}) @minus{} (@var{expression})
   @var{something} @minus{} (@var{undefined symbol})
   (@var{undefined symbol}) @minus{} (@var{undefined symbol})
@end display
are permitted, and belong to the difference segment.  @code{_AS__}
re-evaluates such expressions after the source file has been read and
the symbol table built.  If by that time there are no undefined symbols
in the expression then the expression assumes a new segment.  The
intention is to permit statements like
@samp{.word label - base_of_table}
to be assembled in one pass where both @code{label} and
@code{base_of_table} are undefined.  This is useful for compiling C and
Algol switch statements, Pascal case statements, FORTRAN computed goto
statements and the like.
@end table

@node Sub-Segments, bss, _AS__ Segments, Segments
@section Sub-Segments
Assembled bytes fall into two segments: text and data.
Because you may have groups of text or data that you want to end up near
to each other in the object file, @code{_AS__} allows you to use
@dfn{subsegments}.  Within each segment, there can be numbered
subsegments with values from 0 to 8192.  Objects assembled into the same
subsegment will be grouped with other objects in the same subsegment
when they are all put into the object file.  For example, a compiler
might want to store constants in the text segment, but might not want to
have them interspersed with the program being assembled.  In this case,
the compiler could issue a @code{text 0} before each section of code
being output, and a @code{text 1} before each group of constants being
output.

Subsegments are optional.  If you don't use subsegments, everything
will be stored in subsegment number zero.

_if__(!(_AMD29K__||_I960__))
Each subsegment is zero-padded up to a multiple of four bytes.
(Subsegments may be padded a different amount on different flavors
of @code{_AS__}.)
_fi__(!(_AMD29K__||_I960__))
_if__(_I960__)
@c Rich Pixley says padding here depends on target obj code format; that
@c doesn't seem particularly useful to say without further elaboration,
@c so for now I say nothing about it.  If this is a generic BFD issue,
@c these paragraphs might need to vanish from this manual, and be
@c discussed in BFD chapter of binutils (or some such).
_fi__(_I960__)
_if__(_AMD29K__)
On the AMD 29K family, no particular padding is added to segment sizes;
_AS__ forces no alignment on this platform.
_fi__(_AMD29K__)
Subsegments appear in your object file in numeric order, lowest numbered
to highest.  (All this to be compatible with other people's assemblers.)
The object file contains no representation of subsegments; @code{_LD__} and
other programs that manipulate object files will see no trace of them.
They just see all your text subsegments as a text segment, and all your
data subsegments as a data segment.

To specify which subsegment you want subsequent statements assembled
into, use a @samp{.text @var{expression}} or a @samp{.data
@var{expression}} statement.  @var{Expression} should be an absolute
expression.  (@xref{Expressions}.)  If you just say @samp{.text}
then @samp{.text 0} is assumed.  Likewise @samp{.data} means
@samp{.data 0}.  Assembly begins in @code{text 0}.
For instance:
@smallexample
.text 0     # The default subsegment is text 0 anyway.
.ascii "This lives in the first text subsegment. *"
.text 1
.ascii "But this lives in the second text subsegment."
.data 0
.ascii "This lives in the data segment,"
.ascii "in the first data subsegment."
.text 0
.ascii "This lives in the first text segment,"
.ascii "immediately following the asterisk (*)."
@end smallexample

Each segment has a @dfn{location counter} incremented by one for every
byte assembled into that segment.  Because subsegments are merely a
convenience restricted to @code{_AS__} there is no concept of a subsegment
location counter.  There is no way to directly manipulate a location
counter---but the @code{.align} directive will change it, and any label
definition will capture its current value.  The location counter of the
segment that statements are being assembled into is said to be the
@dfn{active} location counter.

@node bss,  , Sub-Segments, Segments
@section bss Segment
The bss segment is used for local common variable storage.
You may allocate address space in the bss segment, but you may
not dictate data to load into it before your program executes.  When
your program starts running, all the contents of the bss
segment are zeroed bytes.

Addresses in the bss segment are allocated with special directives;
you may not assemble anything directly into the bss segment.  Hence
there are no bss subsegments. @xref{Comm}; @pxref{Lcomm}.

@node Symbols, Expressions, Segments, Top
@chapter Symbols
Symbols are a central concept: the programmer uses symbols to name
things, the linker uses symbols to link, and the debugger uses symbols
to debug.

@quotation
@emph{Warning:} @code{_AS__} does not place symbols in the object file in
the same order they were declared.  This may break some debuggers.
@end quotation

@node Labels, Setting Symbols, Symbols, Symbols
@section Labels
A @dfn{label} is written as a symbol immediately followed by a colon
@samp{:}.  The symbol then represents the current value of the
active location counter, and is, for example, a suitable instruction
operand.  You are warned if you use the same symbol to represent two
different locations: the first definition overrides any other
definitions.

@node Setting Symbols, Symbol Names, Labels, Symbols
@section Giving Symbols Other Values
A symbol can be given an arbitrary value by writing a symbol, followed
by an equals sign @samp{=}, followed by an expression
(@pxref{Expressions}).  This is equivalent to using the @code{.set}
directive.  @xref{Set}.

@node Symbol Names, Dot, Setting Symbols, Symbols
@section Symbol Names
Symbol names begin with a letter or with one of @samp{$._}.  That
character may be followed by any string of digits, letters,
underscores and dollar signs.  Case of letters is significant:
@code{foo} is a different symbol name than @code{Foo}.

_if__(_AMD29K__)
For the AMD 29K family, @samp{?} is also allowed in the
body of a symbol name, though not at its beginning.
_fi__(_AMD29K__)

Each symbol has exactly one name. Each name in an assembly language
program refers to exactly one symbol. You may use that symbol name any
number of times in a program.

@node Local Symbols,  , Symbol Names, Symbol Names
@subsection Local Symbol Names

Local symbols help compilers and programmers use names temporarily.
There are ten local symbol names, which are re-used throughout the
program.  You may refer to them using the names @samp{0} @samp{1}
@dots{} @samp{9}.  To define a local symbol, write a label of the form
@samp{@b{N}:} (where @b{N} represents any digit).  To refer to the most
recent previous definition of that symbol write @samp{@b{N}b}, using the
same digit as when you defined the label.  To refer to the next
definition of a local label, write @samp{@b{N}f}---where @b{N} gives you
a choice of 10 forward references.  The @samp{b} stands for
``backwards'' and the @samp{f} stands for ``forwards''.

Local symbols are not emitted by the current GNU C compiler.

There is no restriction on how you can use these labels, but
remember that at any point in the assembly you can refer to at most
10 prior local labels and to at most 10 forward local labels.

Local symbol names are only a notation device.  They are immediately
transformed into more conventional symbol names before the assembler
uses them.  The symbol names stored in the symbol table, appearing in
error messages and optionally emitted to the object file have these
parts:

@table @code
@item L
All local labels begin with @samp{L}. Normally both @code{_AS__} and
@code{_LD__} forget symbols that start with @samp{L}. These labels are
used for symbols you are never intended to see.  If you give the
@samp{-L} option then @code{_AS__} will retain these symbols in the
object file. If you also instruct @code{_LD__} to retain these symbols,
you may use them in debugging.

@item @var{digit}
If the label is written @samp{0:} then the digit is @samp{0}.
If the label is written @samp{1:} then the digit is @samp{1}.
And so on up through @samp{9:}.

@item @ctrl{A}
This unusual character is included so you don't accidentally invent
a symbol of the same name.  The character has ASCII value
@samp{\001}.

@item @emph{ordinal number}
This is a serial number to keep the labels distinct.  The first
@samp{0:} gets the number @samp{1}; The 15th @samp{0:} gets the
number @samp{15}; @emph{etc.}.  Likewise for the other labels @samp{1:}
through @samp{9:}.
@end table

For instance, the first @code{1:} is named @code{L1@ctrl{A}1}, the 44th
@code{3:} is named @code{L3@ctrl{A}44}.

@node Dot, Symbol Attributes, Symbol Names, Symbols
@section The Special Dot Symbol

The special symbol @samp{.} refers to the current address that
@code{_AS__} is assembling into.  Thus, the expression @samp{melvin:
.long .} will cause @code{melvin} to contain its own address.
Assigning a value to @code{.} is treated the same as a @code{.org}
directive.  Thus, the expression @samp{.=.+4} is the same as saying
_if__(!_AMD29K__)
@samp{.space 4}.
_fi__(!_AMD29K__)
_if__(_AMD29K__)
@samp{.block 4}.
_fi__(_AMD29K__)

@node Symbol Attributes,  , Dot, Symbols
@section Symbol Attributes
Every symbol has, as well as its name, the attributes ``Value'' and
``Type''.  Depending on output format, symbols also have auxiliary attributes.
_if__(_INTERNALS__)
The detailed definitions are in _0__<a.out.h>_1__.
_fi__(_INTERNALS__)

If you use a symbol without defining it, @code{_AS__} assumes zero for
all these attributes, and probably won't warn you.  This makes the
symbol an externally defined symbol, which is generally what you
would want.

@node Symbol Value, Symbol Type, Symbol Attributes, Symbol Attributes
@subsection Value
The value of a symbol is (usually) 32 bits, the size of one GNU C
@code{int}.  For a symbol which labels a location in the text, data, bss
or absolute segments the value is the number of addresses from the start
of that segment to the label.  Naturally for text, data and bss segments
the value of a symbol changes as @code{_LD__} changes segment base
addresses during linking.  Absolute symbols' values do not change during
linking: that is why they are called absolute.

The value of an undefined symbol is treated in a special way.  If it is
0 then the symbol is not defined in this assembler source program, and
@code{_LD__} will try to determine its value from other programs it is
linked with.  You make this kind of symbol simply by mentioning a symbol
name without defining it.  A non-zero value represents a @code{.comm}
common declaration.  The value is how much common storage to reserve, in
bytes (addresses).  The symbol refers to the first address of the
allocated storage.

@node Symbol Type, Symbol Desc, Symbol Value, Symbol Attributes
@subsection Type
The type attribute of a symbol contains relocation (segment)
information, any flag settings indicating that a symbol is external, and
(optionally), other information for linkers and debuggers.  The exact
format depends on the object-code output format in use.

_if__(_AOUT__||_BOUT__)
@node a.out Symbols,,,
@subsection Symbol Attributes: @code{a.out}, @code{b.out}
These symbol attributes appear only when @code{_AS__} is configured for
one of the Berkeley-descended object output formats.

@node Symbol Desc, Symbol Other, Symbol Type, Symbol Attributes
@subsubsection Descriptor
This is an arbitrary 16-bit value.  You may establish a symbol's
descriptor value by using a @code{.desc} statement (@pxref{Desc}).
A descriptor value means nothing to @code{_AS__}.

@node Symbol Other,  , Symbol Desc, Symbol Attributes
@subsubsection Other
This is an arbitrary 8-bit value.  It means nothing to @code{_AS__}.
_fi__(_AOUT__||_BOUT__)

_if__(_COFF__)
@node COFF Symbols,,,
@subsection Symbol Attributes for COFF
The COFF format supports a multitude of auxiliary symbol attributes;
like the primary symbol attributes, they are set between @code{.def} and
@code{.endef} directives.  

@subsubsection Primary Attributes
The symbol name is set with @code{.def}; the value and type,
respectively, with @code{.val} and @code{.type}.

@subsubsection Auxiliary Attributes
The @code{_AS__} directives @code{.dim}, @code{.line}, @code{.scl},
@code{.size}, and @code{.tag} can generate auxiliary symbol table
information for COFF.
_fi__(_COFF__)

@node Expressions, Pseudo Ops, Symbols, Top
@chapter Expressions
An @dfn{expression} specifies an address or numeric value.
Whitespace may precede and/or follow an expression.

@node Empty Exprs, Integer Exprs, Expressions, Expressions
@section Empty Expressions
An empty expression has no value: it is just whitespace or null.
Wherever an absolute expression is required, you may omit the
expression and @code{_AS__} will assume a value of (absolute) 0.  This
is compatible with other assemblers.

@node Integer Exprs,  , Empty Exprs, Expressions
@section Integer Expressions
An @dfn{integer expression} is one or more @emph{arguments} delimited
by @emph{operators}.

@node Arguments, Operators, Integer Exprs, Integer Exprs
@subsection Arguments

@dfn{Arguments} are symbols, numbers or subexpressions.  In other
contexts arguments are sometimes called ``arithmetic operands''.  In
this manual, to avoid confusing them with the ``instruction operands'' of
the machine language, we use the term ``argument'' to refer to parts of
expressions only, reserving the word ``operand'' to refer only to machine
instruction operands.

Symbols are evaluated to yield @{@var{segment} @var{NNN}@} where
@var{segment} is one of text, data, bss, absolute,
or undefined.  @var{NNN} is a signed, 2's complement 32 bit
integer.

Numbers are usually integers.

A number can be a flonum or bignum.  In this case, you are warned
that only the low order 32 bits are used, and @code{_AS__} pretends
these 32 bits are an integer.  You may write integer-manipulating
instructions that act on exotic constants, compatible with other
assemblers.

Subexpressions are a left parenthesis @samp{(} followed by an integer
expression, followed by a right parenthesis @samp{)}; or a prefix
operator followed by an argument.

@node Operators, Prefix Ops, Arguments, Integer Exprs
@subsection Operators
@dfn{Operators} are arithmetic functions, like @code{+} or @code{%}.  Prefix
operators are followed by an argument.  Infix operators appear
between their arguments.  Operators may be preceded and/or followed by
whitespace.

@node Prefix Ops, Infix Ops, Operators, Integer Exprs
@subsection Prefix Operators
@code{_AS__} has the following @dfn{prefix operators}.  They each take
one argument, which must be absolute.

@c the tex/end tex stuff surrounding this small table is meant to make
@c it align, on the printed page, with the similar table in the next
@c section (which is inside an enumerate).
@tex
\global\advance\leftskip by \itemindent
@end tex

@table @code
@item -
@dfn{Negation}.  Two's complement negation.
@item ~
@dfn{Complementation}.  Bitwise not.
@end table

@tex
\global\advance\leftskip by -\itemindent
@end tex

@node Infix Ops,  , Prefix Ops, Integer Exprs
@subsection Infix Operators

@dfn{Infix operators} take two arguments, one on either side.  Operators
have precedence, but operations with equal precedence are performed left
to right.  Apart from @code{+} or @code{-}, both arguments must be
absolute, and the result is absolute.

@enumerate

@item
Highest Precedence
@table @code
@item *
@dfn{Multiplication}.
@item /
@dfn{Division}.  Truncation is the same as the C operator @samp{/}
@item %
@dfn{Remainder}.
@item _0__<_1__
@itemx _0__<<_1__
@dfn{Shift Left}.  Same as the C operator @samp{_0__<<_1__}
@item _0__>_1__
@itemx _0__>>_1__
@dfn{Shift Right}.  Same as the C operator @samp{_0__>>_1__}
@end table

@item
Intermediate precedence
@table @code
@item |
@dfn{Bitwise Inclusive Or}.
@item &
@dfn{Bitwise And}.
@item ^
@dfn{Bitwise Exclusive Or}.
@item !
@dfn{Bitwise Or Not}.
@end table

@item
Lowest Precedence
@table @code
@item +
@dfn{Addition}.  If either argument is absolute, the result
has the segment of the other argument.
If either argument is pass1 or undefined, the result is pass1.
Otherwise @code{+} is illegal.
@item -
@dfn{Subtraction}.  If the right argument is absolute, the
result has the segment of the left argument.
If either argument is pass1 the result is pass1.
If either argument is undefined the result is difference segment.
If both arguments are in the same segment, the result is absolute---provided
that segment is one of text, data or bss.
Otherwise subtraction is illegal.
@end table
@end enumerate

The sense of the rule for addition is that it's only meaningful to add
the @emph{offsets} in an address; you can only have a defined segment in
one of the two arguments.

Similarly, you can't subtract quantities from two different segments.

@node Pseudo Ops, _MACH_DEP__, Expressions, Top
@chapter Assembler Directives

All assembler directives have names that begin with a period (@samp{.}).
The rest of the name is letters: their case does not matter.

This chapter discusses directives present regardless of the target
machine configuration for the GNU assembler; @pxref{_MACH_DEP__} for
additional directives.

@node Abort,,,
@section @code{.abort}
This directive stops the assembly immediately.  It is for
compatibility with other assemblers.  The original idea was that the
assembly language source would be piped into the assembler.  If the sender
of the source quit, it could use this directive tells @code{_AS__} to
quit also.  One day @code{.abort} will not be supported.

_if__(_COFF__)
@node coff-ABORT,,,
@section @code{.ABORT}
When producing COFF output, @code{_AS__} accepts this directive as a
synonym for @samp{.abort}.
_fi__(_COFF__)
_if__(_BOUT__)
_if__(!_COFF__)
@node bout-ABORT,,,
@section @code{.ABORT}
_fi__(!_COFF__)

When producing @code{b.out} output, @code{_AS__} accepts this directive,
but ignores it.
_fi__(_BOUT__)

@node Align,,,
@section @code{.align @var{abs-expr} , @var{abs-expr}}
Pad the location counter (in the current subsegment) to a particular
storage boundary.  The first expression (which must be absolute) is the
number of low-order zero bits the location counter will have after
advancement.  For example @samp{.align 3} will advance the location
counter until it a multiple of 8.  If the location counter is already a
multiple of 8, no change is needed.

The second expression (also absolute) gives the value to be stored in
the padding bytes.  It (and the comma) may be omitted.  If it is
omitted, the padding bytes are zero.

@node App-File,,,
@section @code{.app-file @var{string}}
@code{.app-file}
_if__(!_AMD29K__)
(which may also be spelled @samp{.file})
_fi__(!_AMD29K__)
tells @code{_AS__} that we are about to start a new
logical file.  @var{string} is the new file name.  In general, the
filename is recognized whether or not it is surrounded by quotes @samp{"};
but if you wish to specify an empty file name is permitted,
you must give the quotes--@code{""}.  This statement may go away in
future: it is only recognized to be compatible with old @code{_AS__}
programs.@refill

@node Ascii,,,
@section @code{.ascii "@var{string}"}@dots{}
@code{.ascii} expects zero or more string literals (@pxref{Strings})
separated by commas.  It assembles each string (with no automatic
trailing zero byte) into consecutive addresses.

@node Asciz, Byte, Ascii, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.asciz "@var{string}"}@dots{}
@code{.asciz} is just like @code{.ascii}, but each string is followed by
a zero byte.  The ``z'' in @samp{.asciz} stands for ``zero''.

@node Byte, Comm, Asciz, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.byte @var{expressions}}

@code{.byte} expects zero or more expressions, separated by commas.
Each expression is assembled into the next byte.

@node Comm, Data, Byte, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.comm @var{symbol} , @var{length} }
@code{.comm} declares a named common area in the bss segment.  Normally
@code{_LD__} reserves memory addresses for it during linking, so no partial
program defines the location of the symbol.  Use @code{.comm} to tell
@code{_LD__} that it must be at least @var{length} bytes long.  @code{_LD__}
will allocate space for each @code{.comm} symbol that is at least as
long as the longest @code{.comm} request in any of the partial programs
linked.  @var{length} is an absolute expression.

@node Data, Desc, Comm, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.data @var{subsegment}}
@code{.data} tells @code{_AS__} to assemble the following statements onto the
end of the data subsegment numbered @var{subsegment} (which is an
absolute expression).  If @var{subsegment} is omitted, it defaults
to zero.

_if__(_COFF__)
@node Def,,,
@section @code{.def @var{name}}
Begin defining debugging information for a symbol @var{name}; the
definition extends until the @code{.endef} directive is encountered.
_if__(_BOUT__)

This directive is only observed when @code{_AS__} is configured for COFF
format output; when producing @code{b.out}, @samp{.def} is recognized,
but ignored.
_fi__(_BOUT__)
_fi__(_COFF__)

_if__(_AOUT__||_BOUT__)
@node Desc, Double, Data, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.desc @var{symbol}, @var{abs-expression}}
This directive sets the descriptor of the symbol (@pxref{Symbol Attributes})
to the low 16 bits of an absolute expression.

_if__(_COFF__)
The @samp{.desc} directive is not available when @code{_AS__} is
configured for COFF output; it is only for @code{a.out} or @code{b.out}
object format.  For the sake of compatibility, @code{_AS__} will accept
it, but produce no output, when configured for COFF.
_fi__(_COFF__)
_fi__(_AOUT__||_BOUT__)

_if__(_COFF__)
@node Dim,,,
@section @code{.dim}
This directive is generated by compilers to include auxiliary debugging
information in the symbol table.  It is only permitted inside
@code{.def}/@code{.endef} pairs.
_if__(_BOUT__)

@samp{.dim} is only meaningful when generating COFF format output; when
@code{_AS__} is generating @code{b.out}, it accepts this directive but
ignores it.
_fi__(_BOUT__)
_fi__(_COFF__)

@node Double, Else, Desc, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.double @var{flonums}}
@code{.double} expects zero or more flonums, separated by commas.  It
assembles floating point numbers.
_if__(_ALL_ARCH__)
The exact kind of floating point numbers emitted depends on how
@code{_AS__} is configured.  @xref{_MACH_DEP__}.
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__)
_if__(_AMD29K__ || _I960__)
On the _HOST__ family @samp{.double} emits 64-bit floating-point numbers
in IEEE format.
_fi__(_AMD29K__ || _I960__)

@node Else,,,
@section @code{.else}
@code{.else} is part of the @code{_AS__} support for conditional assembly;
@pxref{If}.  It marks the beginning of a section of code to be assembled
if the condition for the preceding @code{.if} was false.

_if__(0)
@node End,,,
@section @code{.end}
This doesn't do anything---but isn't an s_ignore, so I suspect it's
meant to do something eventually (which is why it isn't documented here
as "for compatibility with blah").
_fi__(0)

_if__(_COFF__)
@node Endef,,,
@section @code{.endef}
This directive flags the end of a symbol definition begun with
@code{.def}. 
_if__(_BOUT__)

@samp{.endef} is only meaningful when generating COFF format output; if
@code{_AS__} is configured to generate @code{b.out}, it accepts this
directive but ignores it.
_fi__(_BOUT__)
_fi__(_COFF__)

@node Endif, Equ, End, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.endif}
@code{.endif} is part of the @code{_AS__} support for conditional assembly;
it marks the end of a block of code that is only assembled
conditionally.  @xref{If}.

@node Equ, Extern, Endif, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.equ @var{symbol}, @var{expression}}

This directive sets the value of @var{symbol} to @var{expression}.
It is synonymous with @samp{.set}; @pxref{Set}.

@node Extern,,,
@section @code{.extern}
@code{.extern} is accepted in the source program---for compatibility
with other assemblers---but it is ignored.  @code{_AS__} treats
all undefined symbols as external.

_if__(!_AMD29K__)
@node File,,,
@section @code{.app-file @var{string}}
@code{.file} (which may also be spelled @samp{.app-file}) tells
@code{_AS__} that we are about to start a new logical file.
@var{string} is the new file name.  In general, the filename is
recognized whether or not it is surrounded by quotes @samp{"}; but if
you wish to specify an empty file name, you must give the
quotes--@code{""}.  This statement may go away in future: it is only
recognized to be compatible with old @code{_AS__} programs.
_fi__(!_AMD29K__)


@node Fill,,,
@section @code{.fill @var{repeat} , @var{size} , @var{value}}
@var{result}, @var{size} and @var{value} are absolute expressions.
This emits @var{repeat} copies of @var{size} bytes.  @var{Repeat}
may be zero or more.  @var{Size} may be zero or more, but if it is
more than 8, then it is deemed to have the value 8, compatible with
other people's assemblers.  The contents of each @var{repeat} bytes
is taken from an 8-byte number.  The highest order 4 bytes are
zero.  The lowest order 4 bytes are @var{value} rendered in the
byte-order of an integer on the computer @code{_AS__} is assembling for.
Each @var{size} bytes in a repetition is taken from the lowest order
@var{size} bytes of this number.  Again, this bizarre behavior is
compatible with other people's assemblers.

@var{size} and @var{value} are optional.
If the second comma and @var{value} are absent, @var{value} is
assumed zero.  If the first comma and following tokens are absent,
@var{size} is assumed to be 1.

@node Float, Global, Fill, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.float @var{flonums}}
This directive assembles zero or more flonums, separated by commas.  It
has the same effect as @code{.single}.
_if__(_ALL_ARCH__)
The exact kind of floating point numbers emitted depends on how
@code{_AS__} is configured.
@xref{_MACH_DEP__}.
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__)
_if__(_AMD29K__ || _I960__)
On the _HOST__ family, @code{.float} emits 32-bit floating point numbers
in IEEE format.
_fi__(_AMD29K__ || _I960__)

@node Global, Ident, Float, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.global @var{symbol}}, @code{.globl @var{symbol}}
@code{.global} makes the symbol visible to @code{_LD__}.  If you define
@var{symbol} in your partial program, its value is made available to
other partial programs that are linked with it.  Otherwise,
@var{symbol} will take its attributes from a symbol of the same name
from another partial program it is linked with.

_if__(!_I960__)
@c FIXME BFD implications; this is different in COFF.
This is done by setting the @code{N_EXT} bit of that symbol's type byte
to 1. @xref{Symbol Attributes}.
_fi__(!_I960__)

Both spellings (@samp{.globl} and @samp{.global}) are accepted, for
compatibility with other assemblers.

@node hword, line, file, Machine Directives
@section @code{.hword @var{expressions}}
This expects zero or more @var{expressions}, and emits
a 16 bit number for each.

_if__(_ALL_ARCH__)
This directive is a synonym for @samp{.short}; depending on the target
architecture, it may also be a synonym for @samp{.word}.
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__)
_if__( (_AMD29K__ || _I960__) && !_ALL_ARCH__ )
This directive is a synonym for @samp{.short}.
_fi__( (_AMD29K__ || _I960__) && !_ALL_ARCH__ )

_if__(_AOUT__||_BOUT__||_COFF__)
@node Ident, If, Global, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.ident}
This directive is used by some assemblers to place tags in object files.
@code{_AS__} simply accepts the directive for source-file
compatibility with such assemblers, but does not actually emit anything
for it.
_fi__(_AOUT__||_BOUT__||_COFF__)

@node If, Include, Ident, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.if @var{absolute expression}}
@code{.if} marks the beginning of a section of code which is only
considered part of the source program being assembled if the argument
(which must be an @var{absolute expression}) is non-zero.  The end of
the conditional section of code must be marked by @code{.endif}
(@pxref{Endif}); optionally, you may include code for the
alternative condition, flagged by @code{.else} (@pxref{Else}.

The following variants of @code{.if} are also supported:
@table @code
@item ifdef @var{symbol}
Assembles the following section of code if the specified @var{symbol}
has been defined.

_if__(0)
@item ifeqs
Not yet implemented.
_fi__(0)

@item ifndef @var{symbol}
@itemx ifnotdef @var{symbol}
Assembles the following section of code if the specified @var{symbol}
has not been defined.  Both spelling variants are equivalent.

_if__(0)
@item ifnes
Not yet implemented.
_fi__(0)
@end table

@node Include, Int, If, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.include "@var{file}"}
This directive provides a way to include supporting files at specified
points in your source program.  The code from @var{file} is assembled as
if it followed the point of the @code{.include}; when the end of the
included file is reached, assembly of the original file continues.  You
can control the search paths used with the @samp{-I} command-line option
(@pxref{Options}).  Quotation marks are required around @var{file}.

@node Int, Lcomm, Include, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.int @var{expressions}}
Expect zero or more @var{expressions}, of any segment, separated by
commas.  For each expression, emit a 32-bit number that will, at run
time, be the value of that expression.  The byte order of the
expression depends on what kind of computer will run the program.

@node Lcomm, Line, Int, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.lcomm @var{symbol} , @var{length}}
Reserve @var{length} (an absolute expression) bytes for a local
common denoted by @var{symbol}.  The segment and value of @var{symbol} are
those of the new local common.  The addresses are allocated in the
bss segment, so at run-time the bytes will start off zeroed.
@var{Symbol} is not declared global (@pxref{Global}), so is normally
not visible to @code{_LD__}.

_if__(_AOUT__||_BOUT__||_COFF__)
_if__(!_AMD29K__)
@node Line,,,
@section @code{.line @var{line-number}}
_fi__(!_AMD29K__)
_if__(_AMD29K__)
@node Ln,,,
@section @code{.ln @var{line-number}}
_fi__(_AMD29K__)
_fi__(_AOUT__||_BOUT__||_COFF__)
_if__(_AOUT__||_BOUT__)
Tell @code{_AS__} to change the logical line number.  @var{line-number} must be
an absolute expression.  The next line will have that logical line
number.  So any other statements on the current line (after a statement
separator character
_if__(_AMD29K__)
@samp{@@})
_fi__(_AMD29K__)
_if__(!_AMD29K__)
@code{;})
_fi__(!_AMD29K__)
will be reported as on logical line number
@var{line-number} @minus{} 1.
One day this directive will be unsupported: it is used only
for compatibility with existing assembler programs. @refill
_fi__(_AOUT__||_BOUT__)
_if__(_COFF__)

Even though this is a directive associated with the @code{a.out} or
@code{b.out} object-code formats, @code{_AS__} will still recognize it
when producing COFF output, and will treat @samp{.line} as though it
were the COFF @samp{.ln} @emph{if} it is found outside a
@code{.def}/@code{.endef} pair.  

Inside a @code{.def}, @samp{.line} is, instead, one of the directives
used by compilers to generate auxiliary symbol information for
debugging.
_fi__(_COFF__)

_if__(_AOUT__&&!_AMD29K__)
@node Ln,,,
@section @code{.ln @var{line-number}}
@samp{.ln} is a synonym for @samp{.line}.
_fi__(_AOUT__&&!_AMD29K__)

_if__(_COFF__&&!_AOUT__)
@node Ln,,,
@section @code{.ln @var{line-number}}
Tell @code{_AS__} to change the logical line number.  @var{line-number}
must be an absolute expression.  The next line will have that logical
line number.  So any other statements on the current line (after a
statement separator character @code{;}) will be reported as on logical
line number @var{line-number} @minus{} 1.
_if__(_BOUT__)

This directive is accepted, but ignored, when @code{_AS__} is configured for
@code{b.out}; its effect is only associated with COFF output format.
_fi__(_BOUT__)
_fi__(_COFF__&&!_AOUT__)

@node List,,,
@section @code{.list} and related directives
@code{_AS__} ignores the directives @code{.list}, @code{.nolist},
@code{.eject}, @code{.lflags}, @code{.title}, @code{.sbttl}; however,
they're accepted for compatibility with assemblers that use them.

@node Long, Lsym, List, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.long @var{expressions}}
@code{.long} is the same as @samp{.int}, @pxref{Int}.

@node Lsym, Octa, Long, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.lsym @var{symbol}, @var{expression}}
@code{.lsym} creates a new symbol named @var{symbol}, but does not put it in
the hash table, ensuring it cannot be referenced by name during the
rest of the assembly.  This sets the attributes of the symbol to be
the same as the expression value:
@smallexample
@var{other} = @var{descriptor} = 0
@var{type} = @r{(segment of @var{expression})}
@var{value} = @var{expression}
@end smallexample
@noindent
The new symbol is not flagged as external.

@c FIXME: double size emitted for "octa" on i960, others?  Or warn?
@node Octa, Org, Lsym, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.octa @var{bignums}}
This directive expects zero or more bignums, separated by commas.  For each
bignum, it emits a 16-byte integer.

The term ``octa'' comes from contexts in which a ``word'' is two bytes;
hence @emph{octa}-word for 16 bytes.

@node Org, Quad, Octa, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.org @var{new-lc} , @var{fill}}

@code{.org} will advance the location counter of the current segment to
@var{new-lc}.  @var{new-lc} is either an absolute expression or an
expression with the same segment as the current subsegment.  That is,
you can't use @code{.org} to cross segments: if @var{new-lc} has the
wrong segment, the @code{.org} directive is ignored.  To be compatible
with former assemblers, if the segment of @var{new-lc} is absolute,
@code{_AS__} will issue a warning, then pretend the segment of @var{new-lc}
is the same as the current subsegment.

@code{.org} may only increase the location counter, or leave it
unchanged; you cannot use @code{.org} to move the location counter
backwards.

@c double negative used below "not undefined" because this is a specific
@c reference to "undefined" (as SEG_UNKNOWN is called in this manual)
@c segment. pesch@cygnus.com 18feb91
Because @code{_AS__} tries to assemble programs in one pass @var{new-lc}
may not be undefined.  If you really detest this restriction we eagerly await
a chance to share your improved assembler.

Beware that the origin is relative to the start of the segment, not
to the start of the subsegment.  This is compatible with other
people's assemblers.

When the location counter (of the current subsegment) is advanced, the
intervening bytes are filled with @var{fill} which should be an
absolute expression.  If the comma and @var{fill} are omitted,
@var{fill} defaults to zero.

@node Quad, Set, Org, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.quad @var{bignums}}
@code{.quad} expects zero or more bignums, separated by commas.  For
each bignum, it emits
_if__(!_I960__)
an 8-byte integer.  If the bignum won't fit in 8
bytes, it prints a warning message; and just takes the lowest order 8
bytes of the bignum.@refill

The term ``quad'' comes from contexts in which a ``word'' is two bytes;
hence @emph{quad}-word for 8 bytes.
_fi__(!_I960__)
_if__(_I960__)
a 16-byte integer.  If the bignum won't fit in 16 bytes, it prints a
warning message; and just takes the lowest order 16 bytes of the
bignum.@refill 
_fi__(_I960__)

_if__(_COFF__)
@node Scl,,,
@section @code{.scl @var{class}}
Set the storage-class value for a symbol.  This directive may only be
used inside a @code{.def}/@code{.endef} pair.  Storage class may flag
whether a symbol is static or external, or it may record further
symbolic debugging information.
_if__(_BOUT__)

The @samp{.scl} directive is primarily associated with COFF output; when
configured to generate @code{b.out} output format, @code{_AS__} will
accept this directive but ignore it.
_fi__(_BOUT__)
_fi__(_COFF__)


@node Set,,,
@section @code{.set @var{symbol}, @var{expression}}

This directive sets the value of @var{symbol} to @var{expression}.  This
will change @var{symbol}'s value and type to conform to
@var{expression}.  If @var{symbol} was flagged as external, it remains
flagged. (@xref{Symbol Attributes}.)

You may @code{.set} a symbol many times in the same assembly.
If the expression's segment is unknowable during pass 1, a second
pass over the source program will be forced.  The second pass is
currently not implemented.  @code{_AS__} will abort with an error
message if one is required.

If you @code{.set} a global symbol, the value stored in the object
file is the last value stored into it.

@node Short, Single, Set, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.short @var{expressions}}
_if__(! (_SPARC__ || _AMD29K__ || _I960__) )
@code{.short} is the same as @samp{.word}.  @xref{Word}.
_fi__(! (_SPARC__ || _AMD29K__ || _I960__) )
_if__(_SPARC__ || _AMD29K__ || _I960__)
This expects zero or more @var{expressions}, and emits
a 16 bit number for each.
_fi__(_SPARC__ || _AMD29K__ || _I960__)

@node Single,,,
@section @code{.single @var{flonums}}
This directive assembles zero or more flonums, separated by commas.  It
has the same effect as @code{.float}.
_if__(_ALL_ARCH__)
The exact kind of floating point numbers emitted depends on how
@code{_AS__} is configured.  @xref{_MACH_DEP__}.
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__)
_if__(_AMD29K__ || _I960__)
On the _HOST__ family, @code{.single} emits 32-bit floating point
numbers in IEEE format.
_fi__(_AMD29K__ || _I960__)

_if__(_COFF__)
@node Size,,,
@section @code{.size}
This directive is generated by compilers to include auxiliary debugging
information in the symbol table.  It is only permitted inside
@code{.def}/@code{.endef} pairs.
_if__(_BOUT__)

@samp{.size} is only meaningful when generating COFF format output; when
@code{_AS__} is generating @code{b.out}, it accepts this directive but
ignores it.
_fi__(_BOUT__)
_fi__(_COFF__)

@node Space,,,
_if__(!_AMD29K__)
@section @code{.space @var{size} , @var{fill}}
This directive emits @var{size} bytes, each of value @var{fill}.  Both
@var{size} and @var{fill} are absolute expressions.  If the comma
and @var{fill} are omitted, @var{fill} is assumed to be zero.
_fi__(!_AMD29K__)

_if__(_AMD29K__)
@section @code{.space}
This directive is ignored; it is accepted for compatibility with other
AMD 29K assemblers.

@quotation
@emph{Warning:} In other versions of the GNU assembler, the directive
@code{.space} has the effect of @code{.block}  @xref{Machine Directives}.
@end quotation
_fi__(_AMD29K__)

_if__(_AOUT__||_BOUT__||_COFF__)
@node Stab, Text, Space, Pseudo Ops
@section @code{.stabd, .stabn, .stabs}
There are three directives that begin @samp{.stab}.
All emit symbols (@pxref{Symbols}), for use by symbolic debuggers.
The symbols are not entered in the @code{_AS__} hash table: they
cannot be referenced elsewhere in the source file.
Up to five fields are required:
@table @var
@item string
This is the symbol's name.  It may contain any character except @samp{\000},
so is more general than ordinary symbol names.  Some debuggers used to
code arbitrarily complex structures into symbol names using this field.
@item type
An absolute expression.  The symbol's type is set to the low 8
bits of this expression.
Any bit pattern is permitted, but @code{_LD__} and debuggers will choke on
silly bit patterns.
@item other
An absolute expression.
The symbol's ``other'' attribute is set to the low 8 bits of this expression.
@item desc
An absolute expression.
The symbol's descriptor is set to the low 16 bits of this expression.
@item value
An absolute expression which becomes the symbol's value.
@end table

If a warning is detected while reading a @code{.stabd}, @code{.stabn},
or @code{.stabs} statement, the symbol has probably already been created
and you will get a half-formed symbol in your object file.  This is
compatible with earlier assemblers!

@table @code
@item .stabd @var{type} , @var{other} , @var{desc}

The ``name'' of the symbol generated is not even an empty string.
It is a null pointer, for compatibility.  Older assemblers used a
null pointer so they didn't waste space in object files with empty
strings.

The symbol's value is set to the location counter,
relocatably.  When your program is linked, the value of this symbol
will be where the location counter was when the @code{.stabd} was
assembled.

@item .stabn @var{type} , @var{other} , @var{desc} , @var{value}

The name of the symbol is set to the empty string @code{""}.

@item .stabs @var{string} ,  @var{type} , @var{other} , @var{desc} , @var{value}

All five fields are specified.
@end table
_fi__(_AOUT__||_BOUT__||_COFF__)

_if__(_COFF__)
@node Tag,,,
@section @code{.tag @var{structname}}
This directive is generated by compilers to include auxiliary debugging
information in the symbol table.  It is only permitted inside
@code{.def}/@code{.endef} pairs.  Tags are used to link structure
definitions in the symbol table with instances of those structures.
_if__(_BOUT__)

@samp{.tag} is only used when generating COFF format output; when
@code{_AS__} is generating @code{b.out}, it accepts this directive but
ignores it.
_fi__(_BOUT__)
_fi__(_COFF__)

@node Text,,,
@section @code{.text @var{subsegment}}
Tells @code{_AS__} to assemble the following statements onto the end of
the text subsegment numbered @var{subsegment}, which is an absolute
expression.  If @var{subsegment} is omitted, subsegment number zero
is used.

_if__(_COFF__)
@node Type,,,
@section @code{.type @var{int}}
This directive, permitted only within @code{.def}/@code{.endef} pairs,
records the integer @var{int} as the type attribute of a symbol table entry.
_if__(_BOUT__)

@samp{.type} is associated only with COFF format output; when
@code{_AS__} is configured for @code{b.out} output, it accepts this
directive but ignores it.
_fi__(_BOUT__)
_fi__(_COFF__)

_if__(_COFF__)
@node Val,,,
@section @code{.val @var{addr}}
This directive, permitted only within @code{.def}/@code{.endef} pairs,
records the address @var{addr} as the value attribute of a symbol table
entry.
_if__(_BOUT__)

@samp{.val} is used only for COFF output; when @code{_AS__} is
configured for @code{b.out}, it accepts this directive but ignores it.
_fi__(_BOUT__)
_fi__(_COFF__)

@node Word,,,
@section @code{.word @var{expressions}}
This directive expects zero or more @var{expressions}, of any segment,
separated by commas.
_if__(_SPARC__ || _AMD29K__ || _I960__)
For each expression, @code{_AS__} emits a 32-bit number.
_fi__(_SPARC__ || _AMD29K__ || _I960__)
_if__(! (_SPARC__ || _AMD29K__ || _I960__) )
For each expression, @code{_AS__} emits a 16-bit number.
_fi__(! (_SPARC__ || _AMD29K__ || _I960__) )

_if__(_ALL_ARCH__)
The byte order of the expression depends on what kind of computer will
run the program.
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__)

@c on these boxes the "special treatment to support compilers" doesn't
@c happen---32-bit addressability, period; no long/short jumps.
_if__(! (_AMD29K__ || _I960__) )
@subsection Special Treatment to support Compilers

In order to assemble compiler output into something that will work,
@code{_AS__} will occasionlly do strange things to @samp{.word} directives.
Directives of the form @samp{.word sym1-sym2} are often emitted by
compilers as part of jump tables.  Therefore, when @code{_AS__} assembles a
directive of the form @samp{.word sym1-sym2}, and the difference between
@code{sym1} and @code{sym2} does not fit in 16 bits, @code{_AS__} will
create a @dfn{secondary jump table}, immediately before the next label.
This @var{secondary jump table} will be preceded by a short-jump to the
first byte after the secondary table.  This short-jump prevents the flow
of control from accidentally falling into the new table.  Inside the
table will be a long-jump to @code{sym2}.  The original @samp{.word}
will contain @code{sym1} minus the address of the long-jump to
@code{sym2}.

If there were several occurrences of @samp{.word sym1-sym2} before the
secondary jump table, all of them will be adjusted.  If there was a
@samp{.word sym3-sym4}, that also did not fit in sixteen bits, a
long-jump to @code{sym4} will be included in the secondary jump table,
and the @code{.word} directives will be adjusted to contain @code{sym3}
minus the address of the long-jump to @code{sym4}; and so on, for as many
entries in the original jump table as necessary.

_if__(_INTERNALS__)
@emph{This feature may be disabled by compiling @code{_AS__} with the
@samp{-DWORKING_DOT_WORD} option.} This feature is likely to confuse
assembly language programmers.
_fi__(_INTERNALS__)
_fi__(! (_AMD29K__ || _I960__) )

@node Deprecated, _MACH_DEP__, Word, Pseudo Ops
@section Deprecated Directives
One day these directives won't work.
They are included for compatibility with older assemblers.
@table @t
@item .abort
@item .app-file
@item .line
@end table

@node _MACH_DEP__,,,
_if__(_ALL_ARCH__)
@chapter Machine Dependent Features
_fi__(_ALL_ARCH__)
_if__(_VAX__)
@group
_CHAPSEC__(0+_ALL_ARCH__) VAX Dependent Features
_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Options

The Vax version of @code{_AS__} accepts any of the following options,
gives a warning message that the option was ignored and proceeds.
These options are for compatibility with scripts designed for other
people's assemblers.
@end group

@table @asis
@item @kbd{-D} (Debug)
@itemx @kbd{-S} (Symbol Table)
@itemx @kbd{-T} (Token Trace)
These are obsolete options used to debug old assemblers.

@item @kbd{-d} (Displacement size for JUMPs)
This option expects a number following the @kbd{-d}.  Like options
that expect filenames, the number may immediately follow the
@kbd{-d} (old standard) or constitute the whole of the command line
argument that follows @kbd{-d} (GNU standard).

@item @kbd{-V} (Virtualize Interpass Temporary File)
Some other assemblers use a temporary file.  This option
commanded them to keep the information in active memory rather
than in a disk file.  @code{_AS__} always does this, so this
option is redundant.

@item @kbd{-J} (JUMPify Longer Branches)
Many 32-bit computers permit a variety of branch instructions
to do the same job.  Some of these instructions are short (and
fast) but have a limited range; others are long (and slow) but
can branch anywhere in virtual memory.  Often there are 3
flavors of branch: short, medium and long.  Some other
assemblers would emit short and medium branches, unless told by
this option to emit short and long branches.

@item @kbd{-t} (Temporary File Directory)
Some other assemblers may use a temporary file, and this option
takes a filename being the directory to site the temporary
file.  @code{_AS__} does not use a temporary disk file, so this
option makes no difference.  @kbd{-t} needs exactly one
filename.
@end table

The Vax version of the assembler accepts two options when
compiled for VMS.  They are @kbd{-h}, and @kbd{-+}.  The
@kbd{-h} option prevents @code{_AS__} from modifying the
symbol-table entries for symbols that contain lowercase
characters (I think).  The @kbd{-+} option causes @code{_AS__} to
print warning messages if the FILENAME part of the object file,
or any symbol name is larger than 31 characters.  The @kbd{-+}
option also insertes some code following the @samp{_main}
symbol so that the object file will be compatible with Vax-11
"C".

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Floating Point
Conversion of flonums to floating point is correct, and
compatible with previous assemblers.  Rounding is
towards zero if the remainder is exactly half the least significant bit.

@code{D}, @code{F}, @code{G} and @code{H} floating point formats
are understood.

Immediate floating literals (@emph{e.g.} @samp{S`$6.9})
are rendered correctly.  Again, rounding is towards zero in the
boundary case.

The @code{.float} directive produces @code{f} format numbers.
The @code{.double} directive produces @code{d} format numbers.

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Machine Directives
The Vax version of the assembler supports four directives for
generating Vax floating point constants.  They are described in the
table below.

@table @code
@item .dfloat
This expects zero or more flonums, separated by commas, and
assembles Vax @code{d} format 64-bit floating point constants.

@item .ffloat
This expects zero or more flonums, separated by commas, and
assembles Vax @code{f} format 32-bit floating point constants.

@item .gfloat
This expects zero or more flonums, separated by commas, and
assembles Vax @code{g} format 64-bit floating point constants.

@item .hfloat
This expects zero or more flonums, separated by commas, and
assembles Vax @code{h} format 128-bit floating point constants.

@end table

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Opcodes
All DEC mnemonics are supported.  Beware that @code{case@dots{}}
instructions have exactly 3 operands.  The dispatch table that
follows the @code{case@dots{}} instruction should be made with
@code{.word} statements.  This is compatible with all unix
assemblers we know of.

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Branch Improvement
Certain pseudo opcodes are permitted.  They are for branch
instructions.  They expand to the shortest branch instruction that
will reach the target.  Generally these mnemonics are made by
substituting @samp{j} for @samp{b} at the start of a DEC mnemonic.
This feature is included both for compatibility and to help
compilers.  If you don't need this feature, don't use these
opcodes.  Here are the mnemonics, and the code they can expand into.

@table @code
@item jbsb
@samp{Jsb} is already an instruction mnemonic, so we chose @samp{jbsb}.
@table @asis
@item (byte displacement)
@kbd{bsbb @dots{}}
@item (word displacement)
@kbd{bsbw @dots{}}
@item (long displacement)
@kbd{jsb @dots{}}
@end table
@item jbr
@itemx jr
Unconditional branch.
@table @asis
@item (byte displacement)
@kbd{brb @dots{}}
@item (word displacement)
@kbd{brw @dots{}}
@item (long displacement)
@kbd{jmp @dots{}}
@end table
@item j@var{COND}
@var{COND} may be any one of the conditional branches
@code{neq nequ eql eqlu gtr geq lss gtru lequ vc vs gequ cc lssu cs}.
@var{COND} may also be one of the bit tests
@code{bs bc bss bcs bsc bcc bssi bcci lbs lbc}.
@var{NOTCOND} is the opposite condition to @var{COND}.
@table @asis
@item (byte displacement)
@kbd{b@var{COND} @dots{}}
@item (word displacement)
@kbd{b@var{UNCOND} foo ; brw @dots{} ; foo:}
@item (long displacement)
@kbd{b@var{UNCOND} foo ; jmp @dots{} ; foo:}
@end table
@item jacb@var{X}
@var{X} may be one of @code{b d f g h l w}.
@table @asis
@item (word displacement)
@kbd{@var{OPCODE} @dots{}}
@item (long displacement)
@kbd{@var{OPCODE} @dots{}, foo ; brb bar ; foo: jmp @dots{} ; bar:}
@end table
@item jaob@var{YYY}
@var{YYY} may be one of @code{lss leq}.
@item jsob@var{ZZZ}
@var{ZZZ} may be one of @code{geq gtr}.
@table @asis
@item (byte displacement)
@kbd{@var{OPCODE} @dots{}}
@item (word displacement)
@kbd{@var{OPCODE} @dots{}, foo ; brb bar ; foo: brw @var{destination} ; bar:}
@item (long displacement)
@kbd{@var{OPCODE} @dots{}, foo ; brb bar ; foo: jmp @var{destination} ; bar: }
@end table
@item aobleq
@itemx aoblss
@itemx sobgeq
@itemx sobgtr
@table @asis
@item (byte displacement)
@kbd{@var{OPCODE} @dots{}}
@item (word displacement)
@kbd{@var{OPCODE} @dots{}, foo ; brb bar ; foo: brw @var{destination} ; bar:}
@item (long displacement)
@kbd{@var{OPCODE} @dots{}, foo ; brb bar ; foo: jmp @var{destination} ; bar:}
@end table
@end table

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) operands
The immediate character is @samp{$} for Unix compatibility, not
@samp{#} as DEC writes it.

The indirect character is @samp{*} for Unix compatibility, not
@samp{@@} as DEC writes it.

The displacement sizing character is @samp{`} (an accent grave) for
Unix compatibility, not @samp{^} as DEC writes it.  The letter
preceding @samp{`} may have either case.  @samp{G} is not
understood, but all other letters (@code{b i l s w}) are understood.

Register names understood are @code{r0 r1 r2 @dots{} r15 ap fp sp
pc}.  Any case of letters will do.

For instance
@smallexample
tstb *w`$4(r5)
@end smallexample

Any expression is permitted in an operand.  Operands are comma
separated.

@c There is some bug to do with recognizing expressions
@c in operands, but I forget what it is.  It is
@c a syntax clash because () is used as an address mode
@c and to encapsulate sub-expressions.
_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Not Supported
Vax bit fields can not be assembled with @code{_AS__}.  Someone
can add the required code if they really need it.
_fi__(_VAX__)
_if__(_AMD29K__)
@group
_CHAPSEC__(0+_ALL_ARCH__) AMD 29K Dependent Features
@node AMD29K Options, AMD29K Syntax, _MACH_DEP__, _MACH_DEP__
_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Options
@code{_AS__} has no additional command-line options for the AMD
29K family.
@end group

@node AMD29K Syntax, AMD29K Floating Point, AMD29K Options, _MACH_DEP__
@group
_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Syntax
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) Special Characters
@samp{;} is the line comment character.

@samp{@@} can be used instead of a newline to separate statements.

The character @samp{?} is permitted in identifiers (but may not begin
an identifier).
@end group

_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) Register Names
General-purpose registers are represented by predefined symbols of the
form @samp{GR@var{nnn}} (for global registers) or @samp{LR@var{nnn}}
(for local registers), where @var{nnn} represents a number between
@code{0} and @code{127}, written with no leading zeros.  The leading
letters may be in either upper or lower case; for example, @samp{gr13}
and @samp{LR7} are both valid register names.

You may also refer to general-purpose registers by specifying the
register number as the result of an expression (prefixed with @samp{%%}
to flag the expression as a register number):
@smallexample
%%@var{expression}
@end smallexample
@noindent---where @var{expression} must be an absolute expression
evaluating to a number between @code{0} and @code{255}.  The range
[0, 127] refers to global registers, and the range [128, 255] to local
registers.

In addition, @code{_AS__} understands the following protected
special-purpose register names for the AMD 29K family:

@smallexample
  vab    chd    pc0
  ops    chc    pc1
  cps    rbp    pc2
  cfg    tmc    mmu
  cha    tmr    lru
@end smallexample

These unprotected special-purpose register names are also recognized:
@smallexample
  ipc    alu    fpe
  ipa    bp     inte
  ipb    fc     fps
  q      cr     exop
@end smallexample

@node AMD29K Floating Point, AMD29K Directives, AMD29K Syntax, _MACH_DEP__
_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Floating Point
The AMD 29K family uses IEEE floating-point numbers.

@group
@node AMD29K Directives, AMD29K Opcodes, AMD29K Floating Point, _MACH_DEP__
_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Machine Directives

@node block, cputype, AMD29K Directives, AMD29K Directives
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) @code{.block @var{size} , @var{fill}}
This directive emits @var{size} bytes, each of value @var{fill}.  Both
@var{size} and @var{fill} are absolute expressions.  If the comma
and @var{fill} are omitted, @var{fill} is assumed to be zero.

In other versions of the GNU assembler, this directive is called
@samp{.space}.
@end group

@node cputype, file, block, Machine Directives
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) @code{.cputype}
This directive is ignored; it is accepted for compatibility with other
AMD 29K assemblers.

@node file, hword, cputype, Machine Directives
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) @code{.file}
This directive is ignored; it is accepted for compatibility with other
AMD 29K assemblers.

@quotation
@emph{Warning:} in other versions of the GNU assembler, @code{.file} is
used for the directive called @code{.app-file} in the AMD 29K support.
@end quotation

@node line, reg, hword, Machine Directives
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) @code{.line}
This directive is ignored; it is accepted for compatibility with other
AMD 29K assemblers.

@node reg, sect, line, Machine Directives
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) @code{.reg @var{symbol}, @var{expression}}
@code{.reg} has the same effect as @code{.lsym}; @pxref{Lsym}.

@node sect, use, reg, Machine Directives
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) @code{.sect}
This directive is ignored; it is accepted for compatibility with other
AMD 29K assemblers.

@node use,  , sect, Machine Directives
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) @code{.use @var{segment name}}
Establishes the segment and subsegment for the following code;
@var{segment name} may be one of @code{.text}, @code{.data},
@code{.data1}, or @code{.lit}.  With one of the first three @var{segment
name} options, @samp{.use} is equivalent to the machine directive
@var{segment name}; the remaining case, @samp{.use .lit}, is the same as
@samp{.data 200}.


@node AMD29K Opcodes, , AMD29K Directives, _MACH_DEP__
@section Opcodes
@code{_AS__} implements all the standard AMD 29K opcodes.  No
additional pseudo-instructions are needed on this family.

For information on the 29K machine instruction set, see @cite{Am29000
User's Manual}, Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.

_fi__(_AMD29K__)
_if__(_I960__)
_CHAPSEC__(0+_ALL_ARCH__) Intel 80960 Dependent Features
@node Options-i960,,,
_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Command-line Options
@table @code

@item -ACA | -ACA_A | -ACB | -ACC | -AKA | -AKB | -AKC | -AMC
Select the 80960 architecture.  Instructions or features not supported
by the selected architecture cause fatal errors.

@samp{-ACA} is equivalent to @samp{-ACA_A}; @samp{-AKC} is equivalent to
@samp{-AMC}.  Synonyms are provided for compatibility with other tools.

If none of these options is specified, @code{_AS__} will generate code for any
instruction or feature that is supported by @emph{some} version of the
960 (even if this means mixing architectures!).  In principle,
@code{_AS__} will attempt to deduce the minimal sufficient processor
type if none is specified; depending on the object code format, the
processor type may be recorded in the object file.  If it is critical
that the @code{_AS__} output match a specific architecture, specify that
architecture explicitly.


@item -b
Add code to collect information about conditional branches taken, for
later optimization using branch prediction bits.  (The conditional branch
instructions have branch prediction bits in the CA, CB, and CC
architectures.)  If @var{BR} represents a conditional branch instruction,
the following represents the code generated by the assembler when
@samp{-b} is specified:

@smallexample
        call    @var{increment routine}
        .word   0       # pre-counter
Label:  @var{BR}
        call    @var{increment routine}
        .word   0       # post-counter
@end smallexample

The counter following a branch records the number of times that branch
was @emph{not} taken; the differenc between the two counters is the
number of times the branch @emph{was} taken.

A table of all such @code{Label}s is also generated, so that the
external postprocessor @samp{gbr960} (supplied by Intel) can locate all
the counters.  This table is always labelled @samp{__BRANCH_TABLE__};
this is a local symbol to permit collecting statistics for many separate
object files.  The table is word aligned, and begins with a two-word
header.  The first word, initialized to 0, is used in maintaining linked
lists of branch tables.  The second word is a count of the number of
entries in the table, which follow immediately: each is a word, pointing
to one of the labels illustrated above.

@ifinfo
@example
 +------------+------------+------------+ ... +------------+
 |            |            |            |     |            |
 |  *NEXT     |  COUNT: N  | *BRLAB 1   |     | *BRLAB N   |
 |            |            |            |     |            |
 +------------+------------+------------+ ... +------------+

               __BRANCH_TABLE__ layout
@end example
@end ifinfo
@tex
\vskip 1pc
\line{\leftskip=0pt\hskip\tableindent
\boxit{2cm}{\tt *NEXT}\boxit{2cm}{\tt COUNT: \it N}\boxit{2cm}{\tt
*BRLAB 1}\ibox{1cm}{\quad\dots}\boxit{2cm}{\tt *BRLAB \it N}\hfil}
\centerline{\it {\tt \_\_BRANCH\_TABLE\_\_} layout}
@end tex

The first word of the header is used to locate multiple branch tables,
since each object file may contain one. Normally the links are
maintained with a call to an initialization routine, placed at the
beginning of each function in the file.  The GNU C compiler will
generate these calls automatically when you give it a @samp{-b} option.
For further details, see the documentation of @samp{gbr960}.

@item -norelax
Normally, Compare-and-Branch instructions with targets that require
displacements greater than 13 bits (or that have external targets) are
replaced with the corresponding compare (or @samp{chkbit}) and branch
instructions.  You can use the @samp{-norelax} option to specify that
@code{_AS__} should generate errors instead, if the target displacement
is larger than 13 bits.

This option does not affect the Compare-and-Jump instructions; the code
emitted for them is @emph{always} adjusted when necessary (depending on
displacement size), regardless of whether you use @samp{-norelax}.
@end table

@node Floating Point-i960,,,
_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Floating Point
@code{_AS__} generates IEEE floating-point numbers for the directives
@samp{.float}, @samp{.double}, @samp{extended}, and @samp{.single}.

@group
@node Directives-i960,,,
_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Machine Directives

@node bss-i960,,,
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) @code{.bss @var{symbol}, @var{length}, @var{align}}
Reserve @var{length} bytes in the bss segment for a local @var{symbol},
aligned to the power of two specified by @var{align}.  @var{length} and
@var{align} must be positive absolute expressions.  This directive
differs from @samp{.lcomm} only in that it permits you to specify
an alignment.  @xref{Lcomm}.
@end group

@node extended-i960,,,
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) @code{.extended @var{flonums}}
@code{.extended} expects zero or more flonums, separated by commas; for
each flonum, @samp{.extended} emits an IEEE extended-format (80-bit)
floating-point number.

@node leafproc-i960,,,
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) @code{.leafproc @var{call-lab}, @var{bal-lab}}
You can use the @samp{.leafproc} directive in conjunction with the
optimized @code{callj} instruction to enable faster calls of leaf
procedures.  If a procedure is known to call no other procedures, you
may define an entry point that skips procedure prolog code (and that does
not depend on system-supplied saved context), and declare it as the
@var{bal-lab} using @samp{.leafproc}.  If the procedure also has an
entry point that goes through the normal prolog, you can specify that
entry point as @var{call-lab}.

A @samp{.leafproc} declaration is meant for use in conjunction with the
optimized call instruction @samp{callj}; the directive records the data
needed later to choose between converting the @samp{callj} into a
@code{bal} or a @code{call}.

@var{call-lab} is optional; if only one argument is present, or if the
two arguments are identical, the single argument is assumed to be the
@code{bal} entry point.

@node sysproc-i960,,,
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) @code{.sysproc @var{name}, @var{index}}
The @samp{.sysproc} directive defines a name for a system procedure.
After you define it using @samp{.sysproc}, you can use @var{name} to
refer to the system procedure identified by @var{index} when calling
procedures with the optimized call instruction @samp{callj}.

Both arguments are required; @var{index} must be between 0 and 31
(inclusive).

@node Opcodes for i960,,,
_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) i960 Opcodes
All Intel 960 machine instructions are supported; @pxref{Options-i960}
for a discussion of selecting the instruction subset for a particular
960 architecture.@refill

Some opcodes are processed beyond simply emitting a single corresponding
instruction: @samp{callj}, and Compare-and-Branch or Compare-and-Jump
instructions with target displacements larger than 13 bits.

@node callj-i960
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) @code{callj}
You can write @code{callj} to have the assembler or the linker determine
the most appropriate form of subroutine call: @samp{call},
@samp{bal}, or @samp{calls}.  If the assembly source contains
enough information---a @samp{.leafproc} or @samp{.sysproc} directive
defining the operand---then @code{_AS__} will translate the
@code{callj}; if not, it will simply emit the @code{callj}, leaving it
for the linker to resolve.

@node Compare-and-branch-i960
_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) Compare-and-Branch

The 960 architectures provide combined Compare-and-Branch instructions
that permit you to store the branch target in the lower 13 bits of the
instruction word itself.  However, if you specify a branch target far
enough away that its address won't fit in 13 bits, the assembler can
either issue an error, or convert your Compare-and-Branch instruction
into separate instructions to do the compare and the branch.

Whether @code{_AS__} gives an error or expands the instruction depends
on two choices you can make: whether you use the @samp{-norelax} option,
and whether you use a ``Compare and Branch'' instruction or a ``Compare
and Jump'' instruction.  The ``Jump'' instructions are @emph{always}
expanded if necessary; the ``Branch'' instructions are expanded when
necessary @emph{unless} you specify @code{-norelax}---in which case
@code{_AS__} gives an error instead.

These are the Compare-and-Branch instructions, their ``Jump'' variants,
and the instruction pairs they may expand into:

@ifinfo
@example
        Compare and
     Branch      Jump       Expanded to
     ------    ------       ------------
        bbc                 chkbit; bno
        bbs                 chkbit; bo
     cmpibe    cmpije       cmpi; be
     cmpibg    cmpijg       cmpi; bg
    cmpibge   cmpijge       cmpi; bge
     cmpibl    cmpijl       cmpi; bl
    cmpible   cmpijle       cmpi; ble
    cmpibno   cmpijno       cmpi; bno
    cmpibne   cmpijne       cmpi; bne
     cmpibo    cmpijo       cmpi; bo
     cmpobe    cmpoje       cmpo; be
     cmpobg    cmpojg       cmpo; bg
    cmpobge   cmpojge       cmpo; bge
     cmpobl    cmpojl       cmpo; bl
    cmpoble   cmpojle       cmpo; ble
    cmpobne   cmpojne       cmpo; bne
@end example
@end ifinfo
@tex
\hskip\tableindent
\halign{\hfil {\tt #}\quad&\hfil {\tt #}\qquad&{\tt #}\hfil\cr
\omit{\hfil\it Compare and\hfil}\span\omit&\cr
{\it Branch}&{\it Jump}&{\it Expanded to}\cr
        bbc&                 & chkbit; bno\cr
        bbs&                 & chkbit; bo\cr
     cmpibe&    cmpije&       cmpi; be\cr
     cmpibg&    cmpijg&       cmpi; bg\cr
    cmpibge&   cmpijge&       cmpi; bge\cr
     cmpibl&    cmpijl&       cmpi; bl\cr
    cmpible&   cmpijle&       cmpi; ble\cr
    cmpibno&   cmpijno&       cmpi; bno\cr
    cmpibne&   cmpijne&       cmpi; bne\cr
     cmpibo&    cmpijo&       cmpi; bo\cr
     cmpobe&    cmpoje&       cmpo; be\cr
     cmpobg&    cmpojg&       cmpo; bg\cr
    cmpobge&   cmpojge&       cmpo; bge\cr
     cmpobl&    cmpojl&       cmpo; bl\cr
    cmpoble&   cmpojle&       cmpo; ble\cr
    cmpobne&   cmpojne&       cmpo; bne\cr}
@end tex

_fi__(_I960__)
_if__(_M680X0__)
@group
_CHAPSEC__(0+_ALL_ARCH__) M680x0 Dependent Features
_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) M680x0 Options
The Motorola 680x0 version of @code{_AS__} has two machine dependent options.
One shortens undefined references from 32 to 16 bits, while the
other is used to tell @code{_AS__} what kind of machine it is
assembling for.
@end group

You can use the @kbd{-l} option to shorten the size of references to
undefined symbols.  If the @kbd{-l} option is not given, references to
undefined symbols will be a full long (32 bits) wide.  (Since @code{_AS__}
cannot know where these symbols will end up, @code{_AS__} can only allocate
space for the linker to fill in later.  Since @code{_AS__} doesn't know how
far away these symbols will be, it allocates as much space as it can.)
If this option is given, the references will only be one word wide (16
bits).  This may be useful if you want the object file to be as small as
possible, and you know that the relevant symbols will be less than 17
bits away.

The 680x0 version of @code{_AS__} is most frequently used to assemble
programs for the Motorola MC68020 microprocessor.  Occasionally it is
used to assemble programs for the mostly similar, but slightly different
MC68000 or MC68010 microprocessors.  You can give @code{_AS__} the options
@samp{-m68000}, @samp{-mc68000}, @samp{-m68010}, @samp{-mc68010},
@samp{-m68020}, and @samp{-mc68020} to tell it what processor is the
target.

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Syntax

The 680x0 version of @code{_AS__} uses syntax similar to the Sun assembler.
Size modifiers are appended directly to the end of the opcode without an
intervening period.  For example, write @samp{movl} rather than
@samp{move.l}.

_if__(_INTERNALS__)
If @code{_AS__} is compiled with SUN_ASM_SYNTAX defined, it will also allow
Sun-style local labels of the form @samp{1$} through @samp{$9}.
_fi__(_INTERNALS__)

In the following table @dfn{apc} stands for any of the address
registers (@samp{a0} through @samp{a7}), nothing, (@samp{}), the
Program Counter (@samp{pc}), or the zero-address relative to the
program counter (@samp{zpc}).

The following addressing modes are understood:
@table @dfn
@item Immediate
@samp{#@var{digits}}

@item Data Register
@samp{d0} through @samp{d7}

@item Address Register
@samp{a0} through @samp{a7}

@item Address Register Indirect
@samp{a0@@} through @samp{a7@@}

@item Address Register Postincrement
@samp{a0@@+} through @samp{a7@@+}

@item Address Register Predecrement
@samp{a0@@-} through @samp{a7@@-}

@item Indirect Plus Offset
@samp{@var{apc}@@(@var{digits})}

@item Index
@samp{@var{apc}@@(@var{digits},@var{register}:@var{size}:@var{scale})}
or @samp{@var{apc}@@(@var{register}:@var{size}:@var{scale})}

@item Postindex
@samp{@var{apc}@@(@var{digits})@@(@var{digits},@var{register}:@var{size}:@var{scale})}
or @samp{@var{apc}@@(@var{digits})@@(@var{register}:@var{size}:@var{scale})}

@item Preindex
@samp{@var{apc}@@(@var{digits},@var{register}:@var{size}:@var{scale})@@(@var{digits})}
or @samp{@var{apc}@@(@var{register}:@var{size}:@var{scale})@@(@var{digits})}

@item Memory Indirect
@samp{@var{apc}@@(@var{digits})@@(@var{digits})}

@item Absolute
@samp{@var{symbol}}, or @samp{@var{digits}}
@ignore
@c pesch@cygnus.com: gnu, rich concur the following needs careful
@c                             research before documenting.
                                           , or either of the above followed
by @samp{:b}, @samp{:w}, or @samp{:l}.
@end ignore
@end table

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Floating Point
The floating point code is not too well tested, and may have
subtle bugs in it.

Packed decimal (P) format floating literals are not supported.
Feel free to add the code!

The floating point formats generated by directives are these.
@table @code
@item .float
@code{Single} precision floating point constants.
@item .double
@code{Double} precision floating point constants.
@end table

There is no directive to produce regions of memory holding
extended precision numbers, however they can be used as
immediate operands to floating-point instructions.  Adding a
directive to create extended precision numbers would not be
hard, but it has not yet seemed necessary.

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Machine Directives
In order to be compatible with the Sun assembler the 680x0 assembler
understands the following directives.
@table @code
@item .data1
This directive is identical to a @code{.data 1} directive.
@item .data2
This directive is identical to a @code{.data 2} directive.
@item .even
This directive is identical to a @code{.align 1} directive.
@c Is this true?  does it work???
@item .skip
This directive is identical to a @code{.space} directive.
@end table

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Opcodes
@c pesch@cygnus.com: I don't see any point in the following
@c                   paragraph.  Bugs are bugs; how does saying this
@c                   help anyone?
@ignore
Danger:  Several bugs have been found in the opcode table (and
fixed).  More bugs may exist.  Be careful when using obscure
instructions.
@end ignore

_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) Branch Improvement

Certain pseudo opcodes are permitted for branch instructions.
They expand to the shortest branch instruction that will reach the
target.  Generally these mnemonics are made by substituting @samp{j} for
@samp{b} at the start of a Motorola mnemonic.

The following table summarizes the pseudo-operations.  A @code{*} flags
cases that are more fully described after the table:

@smallexample
          Displacement
          +---------------------------------------------------------
          |                68020   68000/10
Pseudo-Op |BYTE    WORD    LONG    LONG      non-PC relative
          +---------------------------------------------------------
     jbsr |bsrs    bsr     bsrl    jsr       jsr
      jra |bras    bra     bral    jmp       jmp
*     jXX |bXXs    bXX     bXXl    bNXs;jmpl bNXs;jmp
*    dbXX |dbXX    dbXX        dbXX; bra; jmpl
*    fjXX |fbXXw   fbXXw   fbXXl             fbNXw;jmp

XX: condition
NX: negative of condition XX

@end smallexample
@center{@code{*}---see full description below}

@table @code
@item jbsr
@itemx jra
These are the simplest jump pseudo-operations; they always map to one
particular machine instruction, depending on the displacement to the
branch target.

@item j@var{XX}
Here, @samp{j@var{XX}} stands for an entire family of pseudo-operations,
where @var{XX} is a conditional branch or condition-code test.  The full
list of pseudo-ops in this family is:
@smallexample
 jhi   jls   jcc   jcs   jne   jeq   jvc
 jvs   jpl   jmi   jge   jlt   jgt   jle
@end smallexample

For the cases of non-PC relative displacements and long displacements on
the 68000 or 68010, @code{_AS__} will issue a longer code fragment in terms of
@var{NX}, the opposite condition to @var{XX}:
@smallexample
    j@var{XX} foo
@end smallexample
gives
@smallexample
     b@var{NX}s oof
     jmp foo
 oof:
@end smallexample

@item db@var{XX}
The full family of pseudo-operations covered here is
@smallexample
 dbhi   dbls   dbcc   dbcs   dbne   dbeq   dbvc
 dbvs   dbpl   dbmi   dbge   dblt   dbgt   dble
 dbf    dbra   dbt
@end smallexample

Other than for word and byte displacements, when the source reads
@samp{db@var{XX} foo}, @code{_AS__} will emit
@smallexample
     db@var{XX} oo1
     bra oo2
 oo1:jmpl foo
 oo2:
@end smallexample

@item fj@var{XX}
This family includes
@smallexample
 fjne   fjeq   fjge   fjlt   fjgt   fjle   fjf
 fjt    fjgl   fjgle  fjnge  fjngl  fjngle fjngt
 fjnle  fjnlt  fjoge  fjogl  fjogt  fjole  fjolt
 fjor   fjseq  fjsf   fjsne  fjst   fjueq  fjuge
 fjugt  fjule  fjult  fjun
@end smallexample

For branch targets that are not PC relative, @code{_AS__} emits
@smallexample
     fb@var{NX} oof
     jmp foo
 oof:
@end smallexample
when it encounters @samp{fj@var{XX} foo}.

@end table

_CHAPSEC__(2+_ALL_ARCH__) Special Characters
The immediate character is @samp{#} for Sun compatibility.  The
line-comment character is @samp{|}.  If a @samp{#} appears at the
beginning of a line, it is treated as a comment unless it looks like
@samp{# line file}, in which case it is treated normally.
_fi__(_M680X0__)
@c pesch@cygnus.com: conditionalize on something other than 0 when filled in.
_if__(0)
@section 32x32
@section Options
The 32x32 version of @code{_AS__} accepts a @kbd{-m32032} option to
specify thiat it is compiling for a 32032 processor, or a
@kbd{-m32532} to specify that it is compiling for a 32532 option.
The default (if neither is specified) is chosen when the assembler
is compiled.

@subsection Syntax
I don't know anything about the 32x32 syntax assembled by
@code{_AS__}.  Someone who undersands the processor (I've never seen
one) and the possible syntaxes should write this section.

@subsection Floating Point
The 32x32 uses IEEE floating point numbers, but @code{_AS__} will only
create single or double precision values.  I don't know if the 32x32
understands extended precision numbers.

@subsection Machine Directives
The 32x32 has no machine dependent directives.
_fi__(0)
_if__(_SPARC__)
@c fixme (sparc): Fill in "syntax" section!
_CHAPSEC__(0+_ALL_ARCH__) SPARC Dependent Features
@section Sparc
@subsection Options
The sparc has no machine dependent options.

@subsection syntax
I don't know anything about Sparc syntax.  Someone who does
will have to write this section.

@subsection Floating Point
The Sparc uses ieee floating-point numbers.

@subsection Machine Directives
The Sparc version of @code{_AS__} supports the following additional
machine directives:

@table @code
@item .common
This must be followed by a symbol name, a positive number, and
@code{"bss"}.  This behaves somewhat like @code{.comm}, but the
syntax is different.

@item .global
This is functionally identical to @code{.globl}.

@item .half
This is functionally identical to @code{.short}.

@item .proc
This directive is ignored.  Any text following it on the same
line is also ignored.

@item .reserve
This must be followed by a symbol name, a positive number, and
@code{"bss"}.  This behaves somewhat like @code{.lcomm}, but the
syntax is different.

@item .seg
This must be followed by @code{"text"}, @code{"data"}, or
@code{"data1"}.  It behaves like @code{.text}, @code{.data}, or
@code{.data 1}.

@item .skip
This is functionally identical to the .space directive.

@item .word
On the Sparc, the .word directive produces 32 bit values,
instead of the 16 bit values it produces on every other machine.

@end table
_fi__(_SPARC__)
_if__(_I80386__)
_CHAPSEC__(0+_ALL_ARCH__) 80386 Dependent Features
_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Options
The 80386 has no machine dependent options.

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) AT&T Syntax versus Intel Syntax
In order to maintain compatibility with the output of @code{_GCC__},
@code{_AS__} supports AT&T System V/386 assembler syntax.  This is quite
different from Intel syntax.  We mention these differences because
almost all 80386 documents used only Intel syntax.  Notable differences
between the two syntaxes are:
@itemize @bullet
@item
AT&T immediate operands are preceded by @samp{$}; Intel immediate
operands are undelimited (Intel @samp{push 4} is AT&T @samp{pushl $4}).
AT&T register operands are preceded by @samp{%}; Intel register operands
are undelimited.  AT&T absolute (as opposed to PC relative) jump/call
operands are prefixed by @samp{*}; they are undelimited in Intel syntax.

@item
AT&T and Intel syntax use the opposite order for source and destination
operands.  Intel @samp{add eax, 4} is @samp{addl $4, %eax}.  The
@samp{source, dest} convention is maintained for compatibility with
previous Unix assemblers.

@item
In AT&T syntax the size of memory operands is determined from the last
character of the opcode name.  Opcode suffixes of @samp{b}, @samp{w},
and @samp{l} specify byte (8-bit), word (16-bit), and long (32-bit)
memory references.  Intel syntax accomplishes this by prefixes memory
operands (@emph{not} the opcodes themselves) with @samp{byte ptr},
@samp{word ptr}, and @samp{dword ptr}.  Thus, Intel @samp{mov al, byte
ptr @var{foo}} is @samp{movb @var{foo}, %al} in AT&T syntax.

@item
Immediate form long jumps and calls are
@samp{lcall/ljmp $@var{segment}, $@var{offset}} in AT&T syntax; the
Intel syntax is
@samp{call/jmp far @var{segment}:@var{offset}}.  Also, the far return
instruction
is @samp{lret $@var{stack-adjust}} in AT&T syntax; Intel syntax is
@samp{ret far @var{stack-adjust}}.

@item
The AT&T assembler does not provide support for multiple segment
programs.  Unix style systems expect all programs to be single segments.
@end itemize

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Opcode Naming
Opcode names are suffixed with one character modifiers which specify the
size of operands.  The letters @samp{b}, @samp{w}, and @samp{l} specify
byte, word, and long operands.  If no suffix is specified by an
instruction and it contains no memory operands then @code{_AS__} tries to
fill in the missing suffix based on the destination register operand
(the last one by convention).  Thus, @samp{mov %ax, %bx} is equivalent
to @samp{movw %ax, %bx}; also, @samp{mov $1, %bx} is equivalent to
@samp{movw $1, %bx}.  Note that this is incompatible with the AT&T Unix
assembler which assumes that a missing opcode suffix implies long
operand size.  (This incompatibility does not affect compiler output
since compilers always explicitly specify the opcode suffix.)

Almost all opcodes have the same names in AT&T and Intel format.  There
are a few exceptions.  The sign extend and zero extend instructions need
two sizes to specify them.  They need a size to sign/zero extend
@emph{from} and a size to zero extend @emph{to}.  This is accomplished
by using two opcode suffixes in AT&T syntax.  Base names for sign extend
and zero extend are @samp{movs@dots{}} and @samp{movz@dots{}} in AT&T
syntax (@samp{movsx} and @samp{movzx} in Intel syntax).  The opcode
suffixes are tacked on to this base name, the @emph{from} suffix before
the @emph{to} suffix.  Thus, @samp{movsbl %al, %edx} is AT&T syntax for
``move sign extend @emph{from} %al @emph{to} %edx.''  Possible suffixes,
thus, are @samp{bl} (from byte to long), @samp{bw} (from byte to word),
and @samp{wl} (from word to long).

The Intel syntax conversion instructions
@itemize @bullet
@item
@samp{cbw} --- sign-extend byte in @samp{%al} to word in @samp{%ax},
@item
@samp{cwde} --- sign-extend word in @samp{%ax} to long in @samp{%eax},
@item
@samp{cwd} --- sign-extend word in @samp{%ax} to long in @samp{%dx:%ax},
@item
@samp{cdq} --- sign-extend dword in @samp{%eax} to quad in @samp{%edx:%eax},
@end itemize
are called @samp{cbtw}, @samp{cwtl}, @samp{cwtd}, and @samp{cltd} in
AT&T naming.  @code{_AS__} accepts either naming for these instructions.

Far call/jump instructions are @samp{lcall} and @samp{ljmp} in
AT&T syntax, but are @samp{call far} and @samp{jump far} in Intel
convention.

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Register Naming
Register operands are always prefixes with @samp{%}.  The 80386 registers
consist of
@itemize @bullet
@item
the 8 32-bit registers @samp{%eax} (the accumulator), @samp{%ebx},
@samp{%ecx}, @samp{%edx}, @samp{%edi}, @samp{%esi}, @samp{%ebp} (the
frame pointer), and @samp{%esp} (the stack pointer).

@item
the 8 16-bit low-ends of these: @samp{%ax}, @samp{%bx}, @samp{%cx},
@samp{%dx}, @samp{%di}, @samp{%si}, @samp{%bp}, and @samp{%sp}.

@item
the 8 8-bit registers: @samp{%ah}, @samp{%al}, @samp{%bh},
@samp{%bl}, @samp{%ch}, @samp{%cl}, @samp{%dh}, and @samp{%dl} (These
are the high-bytes and low-bytes of @samp{%ax}, @samp{%bx},
@samp{%cx}, and @samp{%dx})

@item
the 6 segment registers @samp{%cs} (code segment), @samp{%ds}
(data segment), @samp{%ss} (stack segment), @samp{%es}, @samp{%fs},
and @samp{%gs}.

@item
the 3 processor control registers @samp{%cr0}, @samp{%cr2}, and
@samp{%cr3}.

@item
the 6 debug registers @samp{%db0}, @samp{%db1}, @samp{%db2},
@samp{%db3}, @samp{%db6}, and @samp{%db7}.

@item
the 2 test registers @samp{%tr6} and @samp{%tr7}.

@item
the 8 floating point register stack @samp{%st} or equivalently
@samp{%st(0)}, @samp{%st(1)}, @samp{%st(2)}, @samp{%st(3)},
@samp{%st(4)}, @samp{%st(5)}, @samp{%st(6)}, and @samp{%st(7)}.
@end itemize

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Opcode Prefixes
Opcode prefixes are used to modify the following opcode.  They are used
to repeat string instructions, to provide segment overrides, to perform
bus lock operations, and to give operand and address size (16-bit
operands are specified in an instruction by prefixing what would
normally be 32-bit operands with a ``operand size'' opcode prefix).
Opcode prefixes are usually given as single-line instructions with no
operands, and must directly precede the instruction they act upon.  For
example, the @samp{scas} (scan string) instruction is repeated with:
@smallexample
        repne
        scas
@end smallexample

Here is a list of opcode prefixes:
@itemize @bullet
@item
Segment override prefixes @samp{cs}, @samp{ds}, @samp{ss}, @samp{es},
@samp{fs}, @samp{gs}.  These are automatically added by specifying
using the @var{segment}:@var{memory-operand} form for memory references.

@item
Operand/Address size prefixes @samp{data16} and @samp{addr16}
change 32-bit operands/addresses into 16-bit operands/addresses.  Note
that 16-bit addressing modes (i.e. 8086 and 80286 addressing modes)
are not supported (yet).

@item
The bus lock prefix @samp{lock} inhibits interrupts during
execution of the instruction it precedes.  (This is only valid with
certain instructions; see a 80386 manual for details).

@item
The wait for coprocessor prefix @samp{wait} waits for the
coprocessor to complete the current instruction.  This should never be
needed for the 80386/80387 combination.

@item
The @samp{rep}, @samp{repe}, and @samp{repne} prefixes are added
to string instructions to make them repeat @samp{%ecx} times.
@end itemize

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Memory References
An Intel syntax indirect memory reference of the form
@smallexample
@var{segment}:[@var{base} + @var{index}*@var{scale} + @var{disp}]
@end smallexample
is translated into the AT&T syntax
@smallexample
@var{segment}:@var{disp}(@var{base}, @var{index}, @var{scale})
@end smallexample
where @var{base} and @var{index} are the optional 32-bit base and
index registers, @var{disp} is the optional displacement, and
@var{scale}, taking the values 1, 2, 4, and 8, multiplies @var{index}
to calculate the address of the operand.  If no @var{scale} is
specified, @var{scale} is taken to be 1.  @var{segment} specifies the
optional segment register for the memory operand, and may override the
default segment register (see a 80386 manual for segment register
defaults). Note that segment overrides in AT&T syntax @emph{must} have
be preceded by a @samp{%}.  If you specify a segment override which
coincides with the default segment register, @code{_AS__} will @emph{not}
output any segment register override prefixes to assemble the given
instruction.  Thus, segment overrides can be specified to emphasize which
segment register is used for a given memory operand.

Here are some examples of Intel and AT&T style memory references:
@table @asis

@item AT&T: @samp{-4(%ebp)}, Intel:  @samp{[ebp - 4]}
@var{base} is @samp{%ebp}; @var{disp} is @samp{-4}. @var{segment} is
missing, and the default segment is used (@samp{%ss} for addressing with
@samp{%ebp} as the base register).  @var{index}, @var{scale} are both missing.

@item AT&T: @samp{foo(,%eax,4)}, Intel: @samp{[foo + eax*4]}
@var{index} is @samp{%eax} (scaled by a @var{scale} 4); @var{disp} is
@samp{foo}.  All other fields are missing.  The segment register here
defaults to @samp{%ds}.

@item AT&T: @samp{foo(,1)}; Intel @samp{[foo]}
This uses the value pointed to by @samp{foo} as a memory operand.
Note that @var{base} and @var{index} are both missing, but there is only
@emph{one} @samp{,}.  This is a syntactic exception.

@item AT&T: @samp{%gs:foo}; Intel @samp{gs:foo}
This selects the contents of the variable @samp{foo} with segment
register @var{segment} being @samp{%gs}.

@end table

Absolute (as opposed to PC relative) call and jump operands must be
prefixed with @samp{*}.  If no @samp{*} is specified, @code{_AS__} will
always choose PC relative addressing for jump/call labels.

Any instruction that has a memory operand @emph{must} specify its size (byte,
word, or long) with an opcode suffix (@samp{b}, @samp{w}, or @samp{l},
respectively).

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Handling of Jump Instructions
Jump instructions are always optimized to use the smallest possible
displacements.  This is accomplished by using byte (8-bit) displacement
jumps whenever the target is sufficiently close.  If a byte displacement
is insufficient a long (32-bit) displacement is used.  We do not support
word (16-bit) displacement jumps (i.e. prefixing the jump instruction
with the @samp{addr16} opcode prefix), since the 80386 insists upon masking
@samp{%eip} to 16 bits after the word displacement is added.

Note that the @samp{jcxz}, @samp{jecxz}, @samp{loop}, @samp{loopz},
@samp{loope}, @samp{loopnz} and @samp{loopne} instructions only come in
byte displacements, so that it is possible that use of these
instructions (@code{_GCC__} does not use them) will cause the assembler to
print an error message (and generate incorrect code).  The AT&T 80386
assembler tries to get around this problem by expanding @samp{jcxz foo} to
@smallexample
         jcxz cx_zero
         jmp cx_nonzero
cx_zero: jmp foo
cx_nonzero:
@end smallexample

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Floating Point
All 80387 floating point types except packed BCD are supported.
(BCD support may be added without much difficulty).  These data
types are 16-, 32-, and 64- bit integers, and single (32-bit),
double (64-bit), and extended (80-bit) precision floating point.
Each supported type has an opcode suffix and a constructor
associated with it.  Opcode suffixes specify operand's data
types.  Constructors build these data types into memory.

@itemize @bullet
@item
Floating point constructors are @samp{.float} or @samp{.single},
@samp{.double}, and @samp{.tfloat} for 32-, 64-, and 80-bit formats.
These correspond to opcode suffixes @samp{s}, @samp{l}, and @samp{t}.
@samp{t} stands for temporary real, and that the 80387 only supports
this format via the @samp{fldt} (load temporary real to stack top) and
@samp{fstpt} (store temporary real and pop stack) instructions.

@item
Integer constructors are @samp{.word}, @samp{.long} or @samp{.int}, and
@samp{.quad} for the 16-, 32-, and 64-bit integer formats.  The corresponding
opcode suffixes are @samp{s} (single), @samp{l} (long), and @samp{q}
(quad).  As with the temporary real format the 64-bit @samp{q} format is
only present in the @samp{fildq} (load quad integer to stack top) and
@samp{fistpq} (store quad integer and pop stack) instructions.
@end itemize

Register to register operations do not require opcode suffixes,
so that @samp{fst %st, %st(1)} is equivalent to @samp{fstl %st, %st(1)}.

Since the 80387 automatically synchronizes with the 80386 @samp{fwait}
instructions are almost never needed (this is not the case for the
80286/80287 and 8086/8087 combinations).  Therefore, @code{_AS__} suppresses
the @samp{fwait} instruction whenever it is implicitly selected by one
of the @samp{fn@dots{}} instructions.  For example, @samp{fsave} and
@samp{fnsave} are treated identically.  In general, all the @samp{fn@dots{}}
instructions are made equivalent to @samp{f@dots{}} instructions.  If
@samp{fwait} is desired it must be explicitly coded.

_CHAPSEC__(1+_ALL_ARCH__) Notes
There is some trickery concerning the @samp{mul} and @samp{imul}
instructions that deserves mention.  The 16-, 32-, and 64-bit expanding
multiplies (base opcode @samp{0xf6}; extension 4 for @samp{mul} and 5
for @samp{imul}) can be output only in the one operand form.  Thus,
@samp{imul %ebx, %eax} does @emph{not} select the expanding multiply;
the expanding multiply would clobber the @samp{%edx} register, and this
would confuse @code{_GCC__} output.  Use @samp{imul %ebx} to get the
64-bit product in @samp{%edx:%eax}.

We have added a two operand form of @samp{imul} when the first operand
is an immediate mode expression and the second operand is a register.
This is just a shorthand, so that, multiplying @samp{%eax} by 69, for
example, can be done with @samp{imul $69, %eax} rather than @samp{imul
$69, %eax, %eax}.
_fi__(_I80386__)
_if__(0)
@c pesch@cygnus.com: we ignore the following chapters, since internals are
@c                   changing rapidly.  These may need to be moved to another
@c                   book anyhow, if we adopt the model of user/modifier
@c                   books.
@node Maintenance, Retargeting, _MACH_DEP__, Top
@chapter Maintaining the Assembler
[[this chapter is still being built]]

@section Design
We had these goals, in descending priority:
@table @b
@item Accuracy.
For every program composed by a compiler, @code{_AS__} should emit
``correct'' code.  This leaves some latitude in choosing addressing
modes, order of @code{relocation_info} structures in the object
file, @emph{etc}.

@item Speed, for usual case.
By far the most common use of @code{_AS__} will be assembling compiler
emissions.

@item Upward compatibility for existing assembler code.
Well @dots{} we don't support Vax bit fields but everything else
seems to be upward compatible.

@item Readability.
The code should be maintainable with few surprises.  (JF: ha!)

@end table

We assumed that disk I/O was slow and expensive while memory was
fast and access to memory was cheap.  We expect the in-memory data
structures to be less than 10 times the size of the emitted object
file.  (Contrast this with the C compiler where in-memory structures
might be 100 times object file size!)
This suggests:
@itemize @bullet
@item
Try to read the source file from disk only one time.  For other
reasons, we keep large chunks of the source file in memory during
assembly so this is not a problem.  Also the assembly algorithm
should only scan the source text once if the compiler composed the
text according to a few simple rules.
@item
Emit the object code bytes only once.  Don't store values and then
backpatch later.
@item
Build the object file in memory and do direct writes to disk of
large buffers.
@end itemize

RMS suggested a one-pass algorithm which seems to work well.  By not
parsing text during a second pass considerable time is saved on
large programs (@emph{e.g.} the sort of C program @code{yacc} would
emit).

It happened that the data structures needed to emit relocation
information to the object file were neatly subsumed into the data
structures that do backpatching of addresses after pass 1.

Many of the functions began life as re-usable modules, loosely
connected.  RMS changed this to gain speed.  For example, input
parsing routines which used to work on pre-sanitized strings now
must parse raw data.  Hence they have to import knowledge of the
assemblers' comment conventions @emph{etc}.

@section Deprecated Feature(?)s
We have stopped supporting some features:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{.org} statements must have @b{defined} expressions.
@item
Vax Bit fields (@kbd{:} operator) are entirely unsupported.
@end itemize

It might be a good idea to not support these features in a future release:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@kbd{#} should begin a comment, even in column 1.
@item
Why support the logical line & file concept any more?
@item
Subsegments are a good candidate for flushing.
Depends on which compilers need them I guess.
@end itemize

@section Bugs, Ideas, Further Work
Clearly the major improvement is DON'T USE A TEXT-READING
ASSEMBLER for the back end of a compiler.  It is much faster to
interpret binary gobbledygook from a compiler's tables than to
ask the compiler to write out human-readable code just so the
assembler can parse it back to binary.

Assuming you use @code{_AS__} for human written programs: here are
some ideas:
@itemize @bullet
@item
Document (here) @code{APP}.
@item
Take advantage of knowing no spaces except after opcode
to speed up @code{_AS__}.  (Modify @code{app.c} to flush useless spaces:
only keep space/tabs at begin of line or between 2
symbols.)
@item
Put pointers in this documentation to @file{a.out} documentation.
@item
Split the assembler into parts so it can gobble direct binary
from @emph{e.g.} @code{cc}.  It is silly for@code{cc} to compose text
just so @code{_AS__} can parse it back to binary.
@item
Rewrite hash functions: I want a more modular, faster library.
@item
Clean up LOTS of code.
@item
Include all the non-@file{.c} files in the maintenance chapter.
@item
Document flonums.
@item
Implement flonum short literals.
@item
Change all talk of expression operands to expression quantities,
or perhaps to expression arguments.
@item
Implement pass 2.
@item
Whenever a @code{.text} or @code{.data} statement is seen, we close
of the current frag with an imaginary @code{.fill 0}.  This is
because we only have one obstack for frags, and we can't grow new
frags for a new subsegment, then go back to the old subsegment and
append bytes to the old frag.  All this nonsense goes away if we
give each subsegment its own obstack.  It makes code simpler in
about 10 places, but nobody has bothered to do it because C compiler
output rarely changes subsegments (compared to ending frags with
relaxable addresses, which is common).
@end itemize

@section Sources
@c The following files in the @file{_AS__} directory
@c are symbolic links to other files, of
@c the same name, in a different directory.
@c @itemize @bullet
@c @item
@c @file{atof_generic.c}
@c @item
@c @file{atof_vax.c}
@c @item
@c @file{flonum_const.c}
@c @item
@c @file{flonum_copy.c}
@c @item
@c @file{flonum_get.c}
@c @item
@c @file{flonum_multip.c}
@c @item
@c @file{flonum_normal.c}
@c @item
@c @file{flonum_print.c}
@c @end itemize

Here is a list of the source files in the @file{_AS__} directory.

@table @file
@item app.c
This contains the pre-processing phase, which deletes comments,
handles whitespace, etc.  This was recently re-written, since app
used to be a separate program, but RMS wanted it to be inline.

@item append.c
This is a subroutine to append a string to another string returning a
pointer just after the last @code{char} appended.  (JF:  All these
little routines should probably all be put in one file.)

@item as.c
Here you will find the main program of the assembler @code{_AS__}.

@item expr.c
This is a branch office of @file{read.c}.  This understands
expressions, arguments.  Inside @code{_AS__}, arguments are called
(expression) @emph{operands}.  This is confusing, because we also talk
(elsewhere) about instruction @emph{operands}.  Also, expression
operands are called @emph{quantities} explicitly to avoid confusion
with instruction operands.  What a mess.

@item frags.c
This implements the @b{frag} concept.  Without frags, finding the
right size for branch instructions would be a lot harder.

@item hash.c
This contains the symbol table, opcode table @emph{etc.} hashing
functions.

@item hex_value.c
This is a table of values of digits, for use in atoi() type
functions.  Could probably be flushed by using calls to strtol(), or
something similar.

@item input-file.c
This contains Operating system dependent source file reading
routines.  Since error messages often say where we are in reading
the source file, they live here too.  Since @code{_AS__} is intended to
run under GNU and Unix only, this might be worth flushing.  Anyway,
almost all C compilers support stdio.

@item input-scrub.c
This deals with calling the pre-processor (if needed) and feeding the
chunks back to the rest of the assembler the right way.

@item messages.c
This contains operating system independent parts of fatal and
warning message reporting.  See @file{append.c} above.

@item output-file.c
This contains operating system dependent functions that write an
object file for @code{_AS__}.  See @file{input-file.c} above.

@item read.c
This implements all the directives of @code{_AS__}.  This also deals
with passing input lines to the machine dependent part of the
assembler.

@item strstr.c
This is a C library function that isn't in most C libraries yet.
See @file{append.c} above.

@item subsegs.c
This implements subsegments.

@item symbols.c
This implements symbols.

@item write.c
This contains the code to perform relaxation, and to write out
the object file.  It is mostly operating system independent, but
different OSes have different object file formats in any case.

@item xmalloc.c
This implements @code{malloc()} or bust.  See @file{append.c} above.

@item xrealloc.c
This implements @code{realloc()} or bust.  See @file{append.c} above.

@item atof-generic.c
The following files were taken from a machine-independent subroutine
library for manipulating floating point numbers and very large
integers.

@file{atof-generic.c} turns a string into a flonum internal format
floating-point number.

@item flonum-const.c
This contains some potentially useful floating point numbers in
flonum format.

@item flonum-copy.c
This copies a flonum.

@item flonum-multip.c
This multiplies two flonums together.

@item bignum-copy.c
This copies a bignum.

@end table

Here is a table of all the machine-specific files (this includes
both source and header files).  Typically, there is a
@var{machine}.c file, a @var{machine}-opcode.h file, and an
atof-@var{machine}.c file.  The @var{machine}-opcode.h file should
be identical to the one used by GDB (which uses it for disassembly.)

@table @file

@item atof-ieee.c
This contains code to turn a flonum into a ieee literal constant.
This is used by tye 680x0, 32x32, sparc, and i386 versions of @code{_AS__}.

@item i386-opcode.h
This is the opcode-table for the i386 version of the assembler.

@item i386.c
This contains all the code for the i386 version of the assembler.

@item i386.h
This defines constants and macros used by the i386 version of the assembler.

@item m-generic.h
generic 68020 header file.  To be linked to m68k.h on a
non-sun3, non-hpux system.

@item m-sun2.h
68010 header file for Sun2 workstations.  Not well tested.  To be linked
to m68k.h on a sun2.  (See also @samp{-DSUN_ASM_SYNTAX} in the
@file{Makefile}.)

@item m-sun3.h
68020 header file for Sun3 workstations.  To be linked to m68k.h before
compiling on a Sun3 system.  (See also @samp{-DSUN_ASM_SYNTAX} in the
@file{Makefile}.)

@item m-hpux.h
68020 header file for a HPUX (system 5?) box.  Which box, which
version of HPUX, etc?  I don't know.

@item m68k.h
A hard- or symbolic- link to one of @file{m-generic.h},
@file{m-hpux.h} or @file{m-sun3.h} depending on which kind of
680x0 you are assembling for.   (See also @samp{-DSUN_ASM_SYNTAX} in the
@file{Makefile}.)

@item m68k-opcode.h
Opcode table for 68020.  This is now a link to the opcode table
in the @code{GDB} source directory.

@item m68k.c
All the mc680x0 code, in one huge, slow-to-compile file.

@item ns32k.c
This contains the code for the ns32032/ns32532 version of the
assembler.

@item ns32k-opcode.h
This contains the opcode table for the ns32032/ns32532 version
of the assembler.

@item vax-inst.h
Vax specific file for describing Vax operands and other Vax-ish things.

@item vax-opcode.h
Vax opcode table.

@item vax.c
Vax specific parts of @code{_AS__}.  Also includes the former files
@file{vax-ins-parse.c}, @file{vax-reg-parse.c} and @file{vip-op.c}.

@item atof-vax.c
Turns a flonum into a Vax constant.

@item vms.c
This file contains the special code needed to put out a VMS
style object file for the Vax.

@end table

Here is a list of the header files in the source directory.
(Warning:  This section may not be very accurate.  I didn't
write the header files; I just report them.)  Also note that I
think many of these header files could be cleaned up or
eliminated.

@table @file

@item a.out.h
This describes the structures used to create the binary header data
inside the object file.  Perhaps we should use the one in
@file{/usr/include}?

@item as.h
This defines all the globally useful things, and pulls in _0__<stdio.h>_1__
and _0__<assert.h>_1__.

@item bignum.h
This defines macros useful for dealing with bignums.

@item expr.h
Structure and macros for dealing with expression()

@item flonum.h
This defines the structure for dealing with floating point
numbers.  It #includes @file{bignum.h}.

@item frags.h
This contains macro for appending a byte to the current frag.

@item hash.h
Structures and function definitions for the hashing functions.

@item input-file.h
Function headers for the input-file.c functions.

@item md.h
structures and function headers for things defined in the
machine dependent part of the assembler.

@item obstack.h
This is the GNU systemwide include file for manipulating obstacks.
Since nobody is running under real GNU yet, we include this file.

@item read.h
Macros and function headers for reading in source files.

@item struct-symbol.h
Structure definition and macros for dealing with the _AS__
internal form of a symbol.

@item subsegs.h
structure definition for dealing with the numbered subsegments
of the text and data segments.

@item symbols.h
Macros and function headers for dealing with symbols.

@item write.h
Structure for doing segment fixups.
@end table

@comment ~subsection Test Directory
@comment (Note:  The test directory seems to have disappeared somewhere
@comment along the line.  If you want it, you'll probably have to find a
@comment REALLY OLD dump tape~dots{})
@comment
@comment The ~file{test/} directory is used for regression testing.
@comment After you modify ~@code{_AS__}, you can get a quick go/nogo
@comment confidence test by running the new ~@code{_AS__} over the source
@comment files in this directory.  You use a shell script ~file{test/do}.
@comment
@comment The tests in this suite are evolving.  They are not comprehensive.
@comment They have, however, caught hundreds of bugs early in the debugging
@comment cycle of ~@code{_AS__}.  Most test statements in this suite were naturally
@comment selected: they were used to demonstrate actual ~@code{_AS__} bugs rather
@comment than being written ~i{a prioi}.
@comment
@comment Another testing suggestion: over 30 bugs have been found simply by
@comment running examples from this manual through ~@code{_AS__}.
@comment Some examples in this manual are selected
@comment to distinguish boundary conditions; they are good for testing ~@code{_AS__}.
@comment
@comment ~subsubsection Regression Testing
@comment Each regression test involves assembling a file and comparing the
@comment actual output of ~@code{_AS__} to ``known good'' output files.  Both
@comment the object file and the error/warning message file (stderr) are
@comment inspected.  Optionally the ~@code{_AS__} exit status may be checked.
@comment Discrepencies are reported.  Each discrepency means either that
@comment you broke some part of ~@code{_AS__} or that the ``known good'' files
@comment are now out of date and should be changed to reflect the new
@comment definition of ``good''.
@comment
@comment Each regression test lives in its own directory, in a tree
@comment rooted in the directory ~file{test/}.  Each such directory
@comment has a name ending in ~file{.ret}, where `ret' stands for
@comment REgression Test.  The ~file{.ret} ending allows ~code{find
@comment (1)} to find all regression tests in the tree, without
@comment needing to list them explicitly.
@comment
@comment Any ~file{.ret} directory must contain a file called
@comment ~file{input} which is the source file to assemble.  During
@comment testing an object file ~file{output} is created, as well as
@comment a file ~file{stdouterr} which contains the output to both
@comment stderr and stderr.  If there is a file ~file{output.good} in
@comment the directory, and if ~file{output} contains exactly the
@comment same data as ~file{output.good}, the file ~file{output} is
@comment deleted.  Likewise ~file{stdouterr} is removed if it exactly
@comment matches a file ~file{stdouterr.good}.  If file
@comment ~file{status.good} is present, containing a decimal number
@comment before a newline, the exit status of ~@code{_AS__} is compared
@comment to this number.  If the status numbers are not equal, a file
@comment ~file{status} is written to the directory, containing the
@comment actual status as a decimal number followed by newline.
@comment
@comment Should any of the ~file{*.good} files fail to match their corresponding
@comment actual files, this is noted by a 1-line message on the screen during
@comment the regression test, and you can use ~@code{find (1)} to find any
@comment files named ~file{status}, ~file {output} or ~file{stdouterr}.
@comment
@node Retargeting, License, Maintenance, Top
@chapter Teaching the Assembler about a New Machine

This chapter describes the steps required in order to make the
assembler work with another machine's assembly language.  This
chapter is not complete, and only describes the steps in the
broadest terms.  You should look at the source for the
currently supported machine in order to discover some of the
details that aren't mentioned here.

You should create a new file called @file{@var{machine}.c}, and
add the appropriate lines to the file @file{Makefile} so that
you can compile your new version of the assembler.  This should
be straighforward; simply add lines similar to the ones there
for the four current versions of the assembler.

If you want to be compatible with GDB, (and the current
machine-dependent versions of the assembler), you should create
a file called @file{@var{machine}-opcode.h} which should
contain all the information about the names of the machine
instructions, their opcodes, and what addressing modes they
support.  If you do this right, the assembler and GDB can share
this file, and you'll only have to write it once.  Note that
while you're writing @code{_AS__}, you may want to use an
independent program (if you have access to one), to make sure
that @code{_AS__} is emitting the correct bytes.  Since @code{_AS__}
and @code{GDB} share the opcode table, an incorrect opcode
table entry may make invalid bytes look OK when you disassemble
them with @code{GDB}.

@section Functions You will Have to Write

Your file @file{@var{machine}.c} should contain definitions for
the following functions and variables.  It will need to include
some header files in order to use some of the structures
defined in the machine-independent part of the assembler.  The
needed header files are mentioned in the descriptions of the
functions that will need them.

@table @code

@item long omagic;
This long integer holds the value to place at the beginning of
the @file{a.out} file.  It is usually @samp{OMAGIC}, except on
machines that store additional information in the magic-number.

@item char comment_chars[];
This character array holds the values of the characters that
start a comment anywhere in a line.  Comments are stripped off
automatically by the machine independent part of the
assembler.  Note that the @samp{/*} will always start a
comment, and that only @samp{*/} will end a comment started by
@samp{*/}.

@item char line_comment_chars[];
This character array holds the values of the chars that start a
comment only if they are the first (non-whitespace) character
on a line.  If the character @samp{#} does not appear in this
list, you may get unexpected results.  (Various
machine-independent parts of the assembler treat the comments
@samp{#APP} and @samp{#NO_APP} specially, and assume that lines
that start with @samp{#} are comments.)

@item char EXP_CHARS[];
This character array holds the letters that can separate the
mantissa and the exponent of a floating point number.  Typical
values are @samp{e} and @samp{E}.

@item char FLT_CHARS[];
This character array holds the letters that--when they appear
immediately after a leading zero--indicate that a number is a
floating-point number.  (Sort of how 0x indicates that a
hexadecimal number follows.)

@item pseudo_typeS md_pseudo_table[];
(@var{pseudo_typeS} is defined in @file{md.h})
This array contains a list of the machine_dependent directives
the assembler must support.  It contains the name of each
pseudo op (Without the leading @samp{.}), a pointer to a
function to be called when that directive is encountered, and
an integer argument to be passed to that function.

@item void md_begin(void)
This function is called as part of the assembler's
initialization.  It should do any initialization required by
any of your other routines.

@item int md_parse_option(char **optionPTR, int *argcPTR, char ***argvPTR)
This routine is called once for each option on the command line
that the machine-independent part of @code{_AS__} does not
understand.  This function should return non-zero if the option
pointed to by @var{optionPTR} is a valid option.  If it is not
a valid option, this routine should return zero.  The variables
@var{argcPTR} and @var{argvPTR} are provided in case the option
requires a filename or something similar as an argument.  If
the option is multi-character, @var{optionPTR} should be
advanced past the end of the option, otherwise every letter in
the option will be treated as a separate single-character
option.

@item void md_assemble(char *string)
This routine is called for every machine-dependent
non-directive line in the source file.  It does all the real
work involved in reading the opcode, parsing the operands,
etc.  @var{string} is a pointer to a null-terminated string,
that comprises the input line, with all excess whitespace and
comments removed.

@item void md_number_to_chars(char *outputPTR,long value,int nbytes)
This routine is called to turn a C long int, short int, or char
into the series of bytes that represents that number on the
target machine.  @var{outputPTR} points to an array where the
result should be stored; @var{value} is the value to store; and
@var{nbytes} is the number of bytes in 'value' that should be
stored.

@item void md_number_to_imm(char *outputPTR,long value,int nbytes)
This routine is called to turn a C long int, short int, or char
into the series of bytes that represent an immediate value on
the target machine.  It is identical to the function @code{md_number_to_chars},
except on NS32K machines.@refill

@item void md_number_to_disp(char *outputPTR,long value,int nbytes)
This routine is called to turn a C long int, short int, or char
into the series of bytes that represent an displacement value on
the target machine.  It is identical to the function @code{md_number_to_chars},
except on NS32K machines.@refill

@item void md_number_to_field(char *outputPTR,long value,int nbytes)
This routine is identical to @code{md_number_to_chars},
except on NS32K machines.

@item void md_ri_to_chars(struct relocation_info *riPTR,ri)
(@code{struct relocation_info} is defined in @file{a.out.h})
This routine emits the relocation info in @var{ri}
in the appropriate bit-pattern for the target machine.
The result should be stored in the location pointed
to by @var{riPTR}.  This routine may be a no-op unless you are
attempting to do cross-assembly.

@item char *md_atof(char type,char *outputPTR,int *sizePTR)
This routine turns a series of digits into the appropriate
internal representation for a floating-point number.
@var{type} is a character from @var{FLT_CHARS[]} that describes
what kind of floating point number is wanted; @var{outputPTR}
is a pointer to an array that the result should be stored in;
and @var{sizePTR} is a pointer to an integer where the size (in
bytes) of the result should be stored.  This routine should
return an error message, or an empty string (not (char *)0) for
success.

@item int md_short_jump_size;
This variable holds the (maximum) size in bytes of a short (16
bit or so) jump created by @code{md_create_short_jump()}.  This
variable is used as part of the broken-word feature, and isn't
needed if the assembler is compiled with
@samp{-DWORKING_DOT_WORD}.

@item int md_long_jump_size;
This variable holds the (maximum) size in bytes of a long (32
bit or so) jump created by @code{md_create_long_jump()}.  This
variable is used as part of the broken-word feature, and isn't
needed if the assembler is compiled with
@samp{-DWORKING_DOT_WORD}.

@item void md_create_short_jump(char *resultPTR,long from_addr,
@code{long to_addr,fragS *frag,symbolS *to_symbol)}
This function emits a jump from @var{from_addr} to @var{to_addr} in
the array of bytes pointed to by @var{resultPTR}.  If this creates a
type of jump that must be relocated, this function should call
@code{fix_new()} with @var{frag} and @var{to_symbol}.  The jump
emitted by this function may be smaller than @var{md_short_jump_size},
but it must never create a larger one.
(If it creates a smaller jump, the extra bytes of memory will not be
used.)  This function is used as part of the broken-word feature,
and isn't needed if the assembler is compiled with
@samp{-DWORKING_DOT_WORD}.@refill

@item void md_create_long_jump(char *ptr,long from_addr,
@code{long to_addr,fragS *frag,symbolS *to_symbol)}
This function is similar to the previous function,
@code{md_create_short_jump()}, except that it creates a long
jump instead of a short one.  This function is used as part of
the broken-word feature, and isn't needed if the assembler is
compiled with @samp{-DWORKING_DOT_WORD}.

@item int md_estimate_size_before_relax(fragS *fragPTR,int segment_type)
This function does the initial setting up for relaxation.  This
includes forcing references to still-undefined symbols to the
appropriate addressing modes.

@item relax_typeS md_relax_table[];
(relax_typeS is defined in md.h)
This array describes the various machine dependent states a
frag may be in before relaxation.  You will need one group of
entries for each type of addressing mode you intend to relax.

@item void md_convert_frag(fragS *fragPTR)
(@var{fragS} is defined in @file{as.h})
This routine does the required cleanup after relaxation.
Relaxation has changed the type of the frag to a type that can
reach its destination.  This function should adjust the opcode
of the frag to use the appropriate addressing mode.
@var{fragPTR} points to the frag to clean up.

@item void md_end(void)
This function is called just before the assembler exits.  It
need not free up memory unless the operating system doesn't do
it automatically on exit.  (In which case you'll also have to
track down all the other places where the assembler allocates
space but never frees it.)

@end table

@section External Variables You will Need to Use

You will need to refer to or change the following external variables
from within the machine-dependent part of the assembler.

@table @code
@item extern char flagseen[];
This array holds non-zero values in locations corresponding to
the options that were on the command line.  Thus, if the
assembler was called with @samp{-W}, @var{flagseen['W']} would
be non-zero.

@item extern fragS *frag_now;
This pointer points to the current frag--the frag that bytes
are currently being added to.  If nothing else, you will need
to pass it as an argument to various machine-independent
functions.  It is maintained automatically by the
frag-manipulating functions; you should never have to change it
yourself.

@item extern LITTLENUM_TYPE generic_bignum[];
(@var{LITTLENUM_TYPE} is defined in @file{bignum.h}.
This is where @dfn{bignums}--numbers larger than 32 bits--are
returned when they are encountered in an expression. You will
need to use this if you need to implement directives (or
anything else) that must deal with these large numbers.
@code{Bignums} are of @code{segT} @code{SEG_BIG} (defined in
@file{as.h}, and have a positive @code{X_add_number}.  The
@code{X_add_number} of a @code{bignum} is the number of
@code{LITTLENUMS} in @var{generic_bignum} that the number takes
up.

@item extern FLONUM_TYPE generic_floating_point_number;
(@var{FLONUM_TYPE} is defined in @file{flonum.h}.
The is where @dfn{flonums}--floating-point numbers within
expressions--are returned.  @code{Flonums} are of @code{segT}
@code{SEG_BIG}, and have a negative @code{X_add_number}.
@code{Flonums} are returned in a generic format.  You will have
to write a routine to turn this generic format into the
appropriate floating-point format for your machine.

@item extern int need_pass_2;
If this variable is non-zero, the assembler has encountered an
expression that cannot be assembled in a single pass.  Since
the second pass isn't implemented, this flag means that the
assembler is punting, and is only looking for additional syntax
errors.  (Or something like that.)

@item extern segT now_seg;
This variable holds the value of the segment the assembler is
currently assembling into.

@end table

@section External functions will you need

You will find the following external functions useful (or
indispensable) when you're writing the machine-dependent part
of the assembler.

@table @code

@item char *frag_more(int bytes)
This function allocates @var{bytes} more bytes in the current
frag (or starts a new frag, if it can't expand the current frag
any more.)  for you to store some object-file bytes in.  It
returns a pointer to the bytes, ready for you to store data in.

@item void fix_new(fragS *frag, int where, short size, symbolS *add_symbol, symbolS *sub_symbol, long offset, int pcrel)
This function stores a relocation fixup to be acted on later.
@var{frag} points to the frag the relocation belongs in;
@var{where} is the location within the frag where the relocation begins;
@var{size} is the size of the relocation, and is usually 1 (a single byte),
  2 (sixteen bits), or 4 (a longword).
The value @var{add_symbol} @minus{} @var{sub_symbol} + @var{offset}, is added to the byte(s)
at _0__@var{frag->literal[where]}_1__.  If @var{pcrel} is non-zero, the address of the
location is subtracted from the result.  A relocation entry is also added
to the @file{a.out} file.  @var{add_symbol}, @var{sub_symbol}, and/or
@var{offset} may be NULL.@refill

@item char *frag_var(relax_stateT type, int max_chars, int var,
@code{relax_substateT subtype, symbolS *symbol, char *opcode)}
This function creates a machine-dependent frag of type @var{type}
(usually @code{rs_machine_dependent}).
@var{max_chars} is the maximum size in bytes that the frag may grow by;
@var{var} is the current size of the variable end of the frag;
@var{subtype} is the sub-type of the frag.  The sub-type is used to index into
@var{md_relax_table[]} during @code{relaxation}.
@var{symbol} is the symbol whose value should be used to when relax-ing this frag.
@var{opcode} points into a byte whose value may have to be modified if the
addressing mode used by this frag changes.  It typically points into the
@var{fr_literal[]} of the previous frag, and is used to point to a location
that @code{md_convert_frag()}, may have to change.@refill

@item void frag_wane(fragS *fragPTR)
This function is useful from within @code{md_convert_frag}.  It
changes a frag to type rs_fill, and sets the variable-sized
piece of the frag to zero.  The frag will never change in size
again.

@item segT expression(expressionS *retval)
(@var{segT} is defined in @file{as.h}; @var{expressionS} is defined in @file{expr.h})
This function parses the string pointed to by the external char
pointer @var{input_line_pointer}, and returns the segment-type
of the expression.  It also stores the results in the
@var{expressionS} pointed to by @var{retval}.
@var{input_line_pointer} is advanced to point past the end of
the expression.  (@var{input_line_pointer} is used by other
parts of the assembler.  If you modify it, be sure to restore
it to its original value.)

@item as_warn(char *message,@dots{})
If warning messages are disabled, this function does nothing.
Otherwise, it prints out the current file name, and the current
line number, then uses @code{fprintf} to print the
@var{message} and any arguments it was passed.

@item as_bad(char *message,@dots{})
This function should be called when @code{_AS__} encounters
conditions that are bad enough that @code{_AS__} should not
produce an object file, but should continue reading input and
printing warning and bad error messages.

@item as_fatal(char *message,@dots{})
This function prints out the current file name and line number,
prints the word @samp{FATAL:}, then uses @code{fprintf} to
print the @var{message} and any arguments it was passed.  Then
the assembler exits.  This function should only be used for
serious, unrecoverable errors.

@item void float_const(int float_type)
This function reads floating-point constants from the current
input line, and calls @code{md_atof} to assemble them.  It is
useful as the function to call for the directives
@samp{.single}, @samp{.double}, @samp{.float}, etc.
@var{float_type} must be a character from @var{FLT_CHARS}.

@item void demand_empty_rest_of_line(void);
This function can be used by machine-dependent directives to
make sure the rest of the input line is empty.  It prints a
warning message if there are additional characters on the line.

@item long int get_absolute_expression(void)
This function can be used by machine-dependent directives to
read an absolute number from the current input line.  It
returns the result.  If it isn't given an absolute expression,
it prints a warning message and returns zero.

@end table


@section The concept of Frags

This assembler works to optimize the size of certain addressing
modes.  (e.g. branch instructions) This means the size of many
pieces of object code cannot be determined until after assembly
is finished.  (This means that the addresses of symbols cannot be
determined until assembly is finished.)  In order to do this,
@code{_AS__} stores the output bytes as @dfn{frags}.

Here is the definition of a frag (from @file{as.h})
@smallexample
struct frag
@{
        long int fr_fix;
        long int fr_var;
        relax_stateT fr_type;
        relax_substateT fr_substate;
        unsigned long fr_address;
        long int fr_offset;
        struct symbol *fr_symbol;
        char *fr_opcode;
        struct frag *fr_next;
        char fr_literal[];
@}
@end smallexample

@table @var
@item fr_fix
is the size of the fixed-size piece of the frag.

@item fr_var
is the maximum (?) size of the variable-sized piece of the frag.

@item fr_type
is the type of the frag.
Current types are:
rs_fill
rs_align
rs_org
rs_machine_dependent

@item fr_substate
This stores the type of machine-dependent frag this is.  (what
kind of addressing mode is being used, and what size is being
tried/will fit/etc.

@item fr_address
@var{fr_address} is only valid after relaxation is finished.
Before relaxation, the only way to store an address is (pointer
to frag containing the address) plus (offset into the frag).

@item fr_offset
This contains a number, whose meaning depends on the type of
the frag.
for machine_dependent frags, this contains the offset from
fr_symbol that the frag wants to go to.  Thus, for branch
instructions it is usually zero.  (unless the instruction was
@samp{jba foo+12}  or something like that.)

@item fr_symbol
for machine_dependent frags, this points to the symbol the frag
needs to reach.

@item fr_opcode
This points to the location in the frag (or in a previous frag)
of the opcode for the instruction that caused this to be a frag.
@var{fr_opcode} is needed if the actual opcode must be changed
in order to use a different form of the addressing mode.
(For example, if a conditional branch only comes in size tiny,
a large-size branch could be implemented by reversing the sense
of the test, and turning it into a tiny branch over a large jump.
This would require changing the opcode.)

@var{fr_literal} is a variable-size array that contains the
actual object bytes.  A frag consists of a fixed size piece of
object data, (which may be zero bytes long), followed by a
piece of object data whose size may not have been determined
yet.  Other information includes the type of the frag (which
controls how it is relaxed),

@item fr_next
This is the next frag in the singly-linked list.  This is
usually only needed by the machine-independent part of
@code{_AS__}.

@end table
_fi__(0)

@node License,  , Retargeting, Top
@unnumbered GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
@center Version 1, February 1989

@display
Copyright @copyright{} 1989 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
@end display

@unnumberedsec Preamble

  The license agreements of most software companies try to keep users
at the mercy of those companies.  By contrast, our General Public
License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free
software---to make sure the software is free for all its users.  The
General Public License applies to the Free Software Foundation's
software and to any other program whose authors commit to using it.
You can use it for your programs, too.

  When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not
price.  Specifically, the General Public License is designed to make
sure that you have the freedom to give away or sell copies of free
software, that you receive source code or can get it if you want it,
that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free
programs; and that you know you can do these things.

  To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid
anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights.
These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you
distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it.

  For example, if you distribute copies of a such a program, whether
gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that
you have.  You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the
source code.  And you must tell them their rights.

  We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and
(2) offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy,
distribute and/or modify the software.

  Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain
that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free
software.  If the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we
want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so
that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original
authors' reputations.

  The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and
modification follow.

@iftex
@unnumberedsec TERMS AND CONDITIONS
@end iftex
@ifinfo
@center TERMS AND CONDITIONS
@end ifinfo

@enumerate
@item
This License Agreement applies to any program or other work which
contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be
distributed under the terms of this General Public License.  The
``Program'', below, refers to any such program or work, and a ``work based
on the Program'' means either the Program or any work containing the
Program or a portion of it, either verbatim or with modifications.  Each
licensee is addressed as ``you''.

@item
You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's source
code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and
appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice and
disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the notices that refer to this
General Public License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any
other recipients of the Program a copy of this General Public License
along with the Program.  You may charge a fee for the physical act of
transferring a copy.

@item
You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion of
it, and copy and distribute such modifications under the terms of Paragraph
1 above, provided that you also do the following:

@itemize @bullet
@item
cause the modified files to carry prominent notices stating that
you changed the files and the date of any change; and

@item
cause the whole of any work that you distribute or publish, that
in whole or in part contains the Program or any part thereof, either
with or without modifications, to be licensed at no charge to all
third parties under the terms of this General Public License (except
that you may choose to grant warranty protection to some or all
third parties, at your option).

@item
If the modified program normally reads commands interactively when
run, you must cause it, when started running for such interactive use
in the simplest and most usual way, to print or display an
announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a notice
that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide a
warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under these
conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this General
Public License.

@item
You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a
copy, and you may at your option offer warranty protection in
exchange for a fee.
@end itemize

Mere aggregation of another independent work with the Program (or its
derivative) on a volume of a storage or distribution medium does not bring
the other work under the scope of these terms.

@item
You may copy and distribute the Program (or a portion or derivative of
it, under Paragraph 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of
Paragraphs 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following:

@itemize @bullet
@item
accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable
source code, which must be distributed under the terms of
Paragraphs 1 and 2 above; or,

@item
accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three
years, to give any third party free (except for a nominal charge
for the cost of distribution) a complete machine-readable copy of the
corresponding source code, to be distributed under the terms of
Paragraphs 1 and 2 above; or,

@item
accompany it with the information you received as to where the
corresponding source code may be obtained.  (This alternative is
allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you
received the program in object code or executable form alone.)
@end itemize

Source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for making
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libraries that accompany the operating system on which the executable
file runs, or for standard header files or definitions files that
accompany that operating system.

@item
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, distribute or transfer the
Program except as expressly provided under this General Public License.
Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, distribute or transfer
the Program is void, and will automatically terminate your rights to use
the Program under this License.  However, parties who have received
copies, or rights to use copies, from you under this General Public
License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties
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@item
By copying, distributing or modifying the Program (or any work based
on the Program) you indicate your acceptance of this license to do so,
and all its terms and conditions.

@item
Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the
Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the original
licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to these
terms and conditions.  You may not impose any further restrictions on the
recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein.

@item
The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions
of the General Public License from time to time.  Such new versions will
be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to
address new problems or concerns.

Each version is given a distinguishing version number.  If the Program
specifies a version number of the license which applies to it and ``any
later version'', you have the option of following the terms and conditions
either of that version or of any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation.  If the Program does not specify a version number of
the license, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software
Foundation.

@item
If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free
programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author
to ask for permission.  For software which is copyrighted by the Free
Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes
make exceptions for this.  Our decision will be guided by the two goals
of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and
of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally.

@iftex
@heading NO WARRANTY
@end iftex
@ifinfo
@center NO WARRANTY
@end ifinfo

@item
BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO WARRANTY
FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW.  EXCEPT WHEN
OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES
PROVIDE THE PROGRAM ``AS IS'' WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED
OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  THE ENTIRE RISK AS
TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU.  SHOULD THE
PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING,
REPAIR OR CORRECTION.

@item
IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL
ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY MODIFY AND/OR
REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES,
INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES
SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE
WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN
ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
@end enumerate

@iftex
@heading END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
@end iftex
@ifinfo
@center END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
@end ifinfo

@page
@unnumberedsec Applying These Terms to Your New Programs

  If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest
possible use to humanity, the best way to achieve this is to make it
free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these
terms.

  To do so, attach the following notices to the program.  It is safest to
attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively convey
the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the
``copyright'' line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.

@smallexample
@var{one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does.}
Copyright (C) 19@var{yy}  @var{name of author}

This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
the Free Software Foundation; either version 1, or (at your option)
any later version.

This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
GNU General Public License for more details.

You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
Foundation, Inc., 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
@end smallexample

Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.

If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this
when it starts in an interactive mode:

@smallexample
Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) 19@var{yy} @var{name of author}
Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'.
This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
under certain conditions; type `show c' for details.
@end smallexample

The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the
appropriate parts of the General Public License.  Of course, the
commands you use may be called something other than `show w' and `show
c'; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items---whatever suits your
program.

You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your
school, if any, to sign a ``copyright disclaimer'' for the program, if
necessary.  Here is a sample; alter the names:

@smallexample
Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the
program `Gnomovision' (a program to direct compilers to make passes
at assemblers) written by James Hacker.

@var{signature of Ty Coon}, 1 April 1989
Ty Coon, President of Vice
@end smallexample

That's all there is to it!


@summarycontents
@contents
@bye