\input texinfo
-@parindent=0pt
-@setfilename gld
-@c @@setchapternewpage odd
-@settitle GLD, The GNU linker
-@titlepage
-@title{gld}
-@subtitle{The gnu loader}
-@sp 1
-@subtitle Second Edition---gld version 2.0
-@subtitle January 1991
-@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
-Copyright @copyright{} 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+@setfilename ld.info
+@syncodeindex ky cp
+@include configdoc.texi
+@c (configdoc.texi is generated by the Makefile)
+
+@c @smallbook
+
+@ifinfo
+@format
+START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+* Ld: (ld). The GNU linker.
+END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
+@end format
+@end ifinfo
+
+@ifinfo
+This file documents the @sc{gnu} linker LD.
+
+Copyright (C) 1991, 92, 93, 94, 95, 1996 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions.
-@author {Steve Chamberlain}
-@author {Cygnus Support}
-@author {steve@@cygnus.com}
-@end titlepage
+@ignore
+Permission is granted to process this file through Tex and print the
+results, provided the printed document carries copying permission
+notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph
+(this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual).
-@node Top,,,
-@comment node-name, next, previous, up
-@ifinfo
-This file documents the GNU linker gld.
+@end ignore
@end ifinfo
+@iftex
+@finalout
+@setchapternewpage odd
+@settitle Using LD, the GNU linker
+@titlepage
+@title Using ld
+@subtitle The GNU linker
+@sp 1
+@subtitle @code{ld} version 2
+@subtitle January 1994
+@author Steve Chamberlain
+@author Cygnus Support
+@page
-@c chapter What does a linker do ?
-@c chapter Command Language
-@noindent
-@chapter Overview
-
-
-The @code{gld} command combines a number of object and archive files,
-relocates their data and ties up symbol references. Often the last
-step in building a new compiled program to run is a call to @code{gld}.
-
-The @code{gld} command accepts Linker Command Language files in
-a superset of AT+T's Link Editor Command Language syntax,
-to provide explict and total control over the linking process.
-
-This version of @code{gld} uses the general purpose @code{bfd} libraries
-to operate on object files. This allows @code{gld} to read and
-write any of the formats supported by @code{bfd}, different
-formats may be linked together producing any available object file.
+@tex
+{\parskip=0pt
+\hfill Cygnus Support\par
+\hfill steve\@cygnus.com, doc\@cygnus.com\par
+\hfill {\it Using LD, the GNU linker}\par
+\hfill Edited by Jeffrey Osier (jeffrey\@cygnus.com)\par
+}
+\global\parindent=0pt % Steve likes it this way.
+@end tex
-Supported formats:
-@itemize @bullet
-@item
-Sun3 68k a.out
-@item
-IEEE-695 68k Object Module Format
-@item
-Oasys 68k Binary Relocatable Object File Format
-@item
-Sun4 sparc a.out
-@item
-88k bcs coff
-@item
-i960 coff little endian
-@item
-i960 coff big endian
-@item
-i960 b.out little endian
-@item
-i960 b.out big endian
-@item
-s-records
-@end itemize
-
-When linking similar formats, @code{gld} maintains all debugging
-information.
+@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
+Copyright @copyright{} 1991, 92, 93, 94, 95, 1996 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-@chapter Command line options
+Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
+this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
+are preserved on all copies.
-@example
- gld [ -Bstatic ] [ -D @var{datasize} ]
- [ -c @var{filename} ]
- [ -d ] | [ -dc ] | [ -dp ]
- [ -i ]
- [ -e @var{entry} ] [ -l @var{arch} ] [ -L @var{searchdir} ] [ -M ]
- [ -N | -n | -z ] [ -noinhibit-exec ] [ -r ] [ -S ] [ -s ]
- [ -f @var{fill} ]
- [ -T @var{textorg} ] [ -Tdata @var{dataorg} ] [ -t ] [ -u @var{sym}]
- [ -X ] [ -x ]
- [-o @var{output} ] @var{objfiles}@dots{}
-@end example
+Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
+manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that
+the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a
+permission notice identical to this one.
-Command-line options to GNU @code{gld} may be specified in any order, and
-may be repeated at will. For the most part, repeating an option with a
-different argument will either have no further effect, or override prior
-occurrences (those further to the left on the command line) of an
-option.
+Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
+into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions.
+@end titlepage
+@end iftex
+@c FIXME: Talk about importance of *order* of args, cmds to linker!
-The exceptions which may meaningfully be present several times
-are @code{-L}, @code{-l}, and @code{-u}.
+@ifinfo
+@node Top
+@top Using ld
+This file documents the @sc{gnu} linker ld.
+
+@menu
+* Overview:: Overview
+* Invocation:: Invocation
+* Commands:: Command Language
+@ifset GENERIC
+* Machine Dependent:: Machine Dependent Features
+@end ifset
+@ifclear GENERIC
+@ifset H8300
+* H8/300:: ld and the H8/300
+@end ifset
+@ifset Hitachi
+* Hitachi:: ld and other Hitachi micros
+@end ifset
+@ifset I960
+* i960:: ld and the Intel 960 family
+@end ifset
+@end ifclear
+@ifclear SingleFormat
+* BFD:: BFD
+@end ifclear
+@c Following blank line required for remaining bug in makeinfo conds/menus
+
+* Reporting Bugs:: Reporting Bugs
+* MRI:: MRI Compatible Script Files
+* Index:: Index
+@end menu
+@end ifinfo
-@var{objfiles} may follow, precede, or be mixed in with
-command-line options; save that an @var{objfiles} argument may not be
-placed between an option flag and its argument.
+@node Overview
+@chapter Overview
-Option arguments must follow the option letter without intervening
+@cindex @sc{gnu} linker
+@cindex what is this?
+@code{ld} combines a number of object and archive files, relocates
+their data and ties up symbol references. Usually the last step in
+compiling a program is to run @code{ld}.
+
+@code{ld} accepts Linker Command Language files written in
+a superset of AT&T's Link Editor Command Language syntax,
+to provide explicit and total control over the linking process.
+
+@ifclear SingleFormat
+This version of @code{ld} uses the general purpose BFD libraries
+to operate on object files. This allows @code{ld} to read, combine, and
+write object files in many different formats---for example, COFF or
+@code{a.out}. Different formats may be linked together to produce any
+available kind of object file. @xref{BFD}, for more information.
+@end ifclear
+
+Aside from its flexibility, the @sc{gnu} linker is more helpful than other
+linkers in providing diagnostic information. Many linkers abandon
+execution immediately upon encountering an error; whenever possible,
+@code{ld} continues executing, allowing you to identify other errors
+(or, in some cases, to get an output file in spite of the error).
+
+@node Invocation
+@chapter Invocation
+
+The @sc{gnu} linker @code{ld} is meant to cover a broad range of situations,
+and to be as compatible as possible with other linkers. As a result,
+you have many choices to control its behavior.
+
+@ifset UsesEnvVars
+@menu
+* Options:: Command Line Options
+* Environment:: Environment Variables
+@end menu
+
+@node Options
+@section Command Line Options
+@end ifset
+
+@cindex command line
+@cindex options
+The linker supports a plethora of command-line options, but in actual
+practice few of them are used in any particular context.
+@cindex standard Unix system
+For instance, a frequent use of @code{ld} is to link standard Unix
+object files on a standard, supported Unix system. On such a system, to
+link a file @code{hello.o}:
+
+@smallexample
+ld -o @var{output} /lib/crt0.o hello.o -lc
+@end smallexample
+
+This tells @code{ld} to produce a file called @var{output} as the
+result of linking the file @code{/lib/crt0.o} with @code{hello.o} and
+the library @code{libc.a}, which will come from the standard search
+directories. (See the discussion of the @samp{-l} option below.)
+
+The command-line options to @code{ld} may be specified in any order, and
+may be repeated at will. Repeating most options with a different
+argument will either have no further effect, or override prior
+occurrences (those further to the left on the command line) of that
+option. Options which may be meaningfully specified more than once are
+noted in the descriptions below.
+
+@cindex object files
+Non-option arguments are objects files which are to be linked together.
+They may follow, precede, or be mixed in with command-line options,
+except that an object file argument may not be placed between an option
+and its argument.
+
+Usually the linker is invoked with at least one object file, but you can
+specify other forms of binary input files using @samp{-l}, @samp{-R},
+and the script command language. If @emph{no} binary input files at all
+are specified, the linker does not produce any output, and issues the
+message @samp{No input files}.
+
+If the linker can not recognize the format of an object file, it will
+assume that it is a linker script. A script specified in this way
+augments the main linker script used for the link (either the default
+linker script or the one specified by using @samp{-T}). This feature
+permits the linker to link against a file which appears to be an object
+or an archive, but actually merely defines some symbol values, or uses
+@code{INPUT} or @code{GROUP} to load other objects. Note that
+specifying a script in this way should only be used to augment the main
+linker script; if you want to use some command that logically can only
+appear once, such as the @code{SECTIONS} or @code{MEMORY} command, you
+must replace the default linker script using the @samp{-T} option.
+@xref{Commands}.
+
+For options whose names are a single letter,
+option arguments must either follow the option letter without intervening
whitespace, or be given as separate arguments immediately following the
option that requires them.
-@table @code
-@item @var{objfiles}@dots{}
-The object files @var{objfiles} to be linked; at least one must be specified.
-
-@item -Bstatic
-This flag is accepted for command-line compatibility with the SunOS linker,
-but has no effect on @code{gld}.
-
-@item -c @var{commandfile}
-Directs @code{gld} to read linkage commands from the file @var{commandfile}.
-
-@item -D @var{datasize}
-Use this option to specify a target size for the @code{data} segment of
-your linked program. The option is only obeyed if @var{datasize} is
-larger than the natural size of the program's @code{data} segment.
-
-@var{datasize} must be an integer specified in hexadecimal.
-
-@code{ld} will simply increase the size of the @code{data} segment,
-padding the created gap with zeros, and reduce the size of the
-@code{bss} segment to match.
-
-@item -d
-Force @code{ld} to assign space to common symbols
-even if a relocatable output file is specified (@code{-r}).
-
-@item -dc | -dp
-This flags is accepted for command-line compatibility with the SunOS linker,
-but has no effect on @code{gld}.
+For options whose names are multiple letters, either one dash or two can
+precede the option name; for example, @samp{--oformat} and
+@samp{--oformat} are equivalent. Arguments to multiple-letter options
+must either be separated from the option name by an equals sign, or be
+given as separate arguments immediately following the option that
+requires them. For example, @samp{--oformat srec} and
+@samp{--oformat=srec} are equivalent. Unique abbreviations of the names
+of multiple-letter options are accepted.
+@table @code
+@kindex -a@var{keyword}
+@item -a@var{keyword}
+This option is supported for HP/UX compatibility. The @var{keyword}
+argument must be one of the strings @samp{archive}, @samp{shared}, or
+@samp{default}. @samp{-aarchive} is functionally equivalent to
+@samp{-Bstatic}, and the other two keywords are functionally equivalent
+to @samp{-Bdynamic}. This option may be used any number of times.
+
+@ifset I960
+@cindex architectures
+@kindex -A@var{arch}
+@item -A@var{architecture}
+@kindex --architecture=@var{arch}
+@itemx --architecture=@var{architecture}
+In the current release of @code{ld}, this option is useful only for the
+Intel 960 family of architectures. In that @code{ld} configuration, the
+@var{architecture} argument identifies the particular architecture in
+the 960 family, enabling some safeguards and modifying the
+archive-library search path. @xref{i960,,@code{ld} and the Intel 960
+family}, for details.
+
+Future releases of @code{ld} may support similar functionality for
+other architecture families.
+@end ifset
+
+@ifclear SingleFormat
+@cindex binary input format
+@kindex -b @var{format}
+@kindex --format=@var{format}
+@cindex input format
+@cindex input format
+@item -b @var{input-format}
+@itemx --format=@var{input-format}
+@code{ld} may be configured to support more than one kind of object
+file. If your @code{ld} is configured this way, you can use the
+@samp{-b} option to specify the binary format for input object files
+that follow this option on the command line. Even when @code{ld} is
+configured to support alternative object formats, you don't usually need
+to specify this, as @code{ld} should be configured to expect as a
+default input format the most usual format on each machine.
+@var{input-format} is a text string, the name of a particular format
+supported by the BFD libraries. (You can list the available binary
+formats with @samp{objdump -i}.)
+@xref{BFD}.
+
+You may want to use this option if you are linking files with an unusual
+binary format. You can also use @samp{-b} to switch formats explicitly (when
+linking object files of different formats), by including
+@samp{-b @var{input-format}} before each group of object files in a
+particular format.
+
+The default format is taken from the environment variable
+@code{GNUTARGET}.
+@ifset UsesEnvVars
+@xref{Environment}.
+@end ifset
+You can also define the input
+format from a script, using the command @code{TARGET}; see @ref{Option
+Commands}.
+@end ifclear
+
+@kindex -c @var{MRI-cmdfile}
+@kindex --mri-script=@var{MRI-cmdfile}
+@cindex compatibility, MRI
+@item -c @var{MRI-commandfile}
+@itemx --mri-script=@var{MRI-commandfile}
+For compatibility with linkers produced by MRI, @code{ld} accepts script
+files written in an alternate, restricted command language, described in
+@ref{MRI,,MRI Compatible Script Files}. Introduce MRI script files with
+the option @samp{-c}; use the @samp{-T} option to run linker
+scripts written in the general-purpose @code{ld} scripting language.
+If @var{MRI-cmdfile} does not exist, @code{ld} looks for it in the directories
+specified by any @samp{-L} options.
+
+@cindex common allocation
+@kindex -d
+@kindex -dc
+@kindex -dp
+@item -d
+@itemx -dc
+@itemx -dp
+These three options are equivalent; multiple forms are supported for
+compatibility with other linkers. They
+assign space to common symbols even if a relocatable output file is
+specified (with @samp{-r}). The script command
+@code{FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION} has the same effect. @xref{Option
+Commands}.
+
+@cindex entry point, from command line
+@kindex -e @var{entry}
+@kindex --entry=@var{entry}
@item -e @var{entry}
+@itemx --entry=@var{entry}
Use @var{entry} as the explicit symbol for beginning execution of your
-program, rather than the default entry point. If this symbol is
-not specified, the symbol @code{start} is used as the entry address.
-If there is no symbol called @code{start}, then the entry address
-is set to the first address in the first output section
-(usually the @samp{text} section).
-
-@item -f @var{fill}
-Sets the default fill pattern for ``holes'' in the output file to
-the lowest two bytes of the expression specified.
-
+program, rather than the default entry point. @xref{Entry Point}, for a
+discussion of defaults and other ways of specifying the
+entry point.
+
+@cindex dynamic symbol table
+@kindex -E
+@kindex --export-dynamic
+@item -E
+@itemx --export-dynamic
+When creating a dynamically linked executable, add all symbols to the
+dynamic symbol table. Normally, the dynamic symbol table contains only
+symbols which are used by a dynamic object. This option is needed for
+some uses of @code{dlopen}.
+
+@kindex -f
+@kindex --auxiliary
+@item -f
+@itemx --auxiliary @var{name}
+When creating an ELF shared object, set the internal DT_AUXILIARY field
+to the specified name. This tells the dynamic linker that the symbol
+table of the shared object should be used as an auxiliary filter on the
+symbol table of the shared object @var{name}.
+
+If you later link a program against this filter object, then, when you
+run the program, the dynamic linker will see the DT_AUXILIARY field. If
+the dynamic linker resolves any symbols from the filter object, it will
+first check whether there is a definition in the shared object
+@var{name}. If there is one, it will be used instead of the definition
+in the filter object. The shared object @var{name} need not exist.
+Thus the shared object @var{name} may be used to provide an alternative
+implementation of certain functions, perhaps for debugging or for
+machine specific performance.
+
+@kindex -F
+@kindex --filter
+@item -F @var{name}
+@itemx --filter @var{name}
+When creating an ELF shared object, set the internal DT_FILTER field to
+the specified name. This tells the dynamic linker that the symbol table
+of the shared object which is being created should be used as a filter
+on the symbol table of the shared object @var{name}.
+
+If you later link a program against this filter object, then, when you
+run the program, the dynamic linker will see the DT_FILTER field. The
+dynamic linker will resolve symbols according to the symbol table of the
+filter object as usual, but it will actually link to the definitions
+found in the shared object @var{name}. Thus the filter object can be
+used to select a subset of the symbols provided by the object
+@var{name}.
+
+Some older linkers used the @code{-F} option throughout a compilation
+toolchain for specifying object-file format for both input and output
+object files. The @sc{gnu} linker uses other mechanisms for this
+purpose: the @code{-b}, @code{--format}, @code{--oformat} options, the
+@code{TARGET} command in linker scripts, and the @code{GNUTARGET}
+environment variable. The @sc{gnu} linker will ignore the @code{-F}
+option when not creating an ELF shared object.
+
+@kindex --force-exe-suffix
+@item --force-exe-suffix
+Make sure that an output file has a .exe suffix.
+
+If a successfully built fully linked output file does not have a
+@code{.exe} or @code{.dll} suffix, this option forces the linker to copy
+the output file to one of the same name with a @code{.exe} suffix. This
+option is useful when using unmodified Unix makefiles on a Microsoft
+Windows host, since some versions of Windows won't run an image unless
+it ends in a @code{.exe} suffix.
+
+@kindex -g
+@item -g
+Ignored. Provided for compatibility with other tools.
+
+@kindex -G
+@kindex --gpsize
+@cindex object size
+@item -G@var{value}
+@itemx --gpsize=@var{value}
+Set the maximum size of objects to be optimized using the GP register to
+@var{size}. This is only meaningful for object file formats such as
+MIPS ECOFF which supports putting large and small objects into different
+sections. This is ignored for other object file formats.
+
+@cindex runtime library name
+@kindex -h@var{name}
+@kindex -soname=@var{name}
+@item -h@var{name}
+@itemx -soname=@var{name}
+When creating an ELF shared object, set the internal DT_SONAME field to
+the specified name. When an executable is linked with a shared object
+which has a DT_SONAME field, then when the executable is run the dynamic
+linker will attempt to load the shared object specified by the DT_SONAME
+field rather than the using the file name given to the linker.
+
+@kindex -i
+@cindex incremental link
@item -i
-Produce an incremental link (same as option @code{-r}).
-
-@item -l @var{arch}
-Add an archive file @var{arch} to the list of files to link. This
+Perform an incremental link (same as option @samp{-r}).
+
+@cindex archive files, from cmd line
+@kindex -l@var{archive}
+@kindex --library=@var{archive}
+@item -l@var{archive}
+@itemx --library=@var{archive}
+Add archive file @var{archive} to the list of files to link. This
option may be used any number of times. @code{ld} will search its
-path-list for occurrences of @code{lib@var{arch}.a} for every @var{arch}
-specified.
-
-@c This also has a side effect of using the "c++ demangler" if we happen
-@c to specify -llibg++. Document? pesch@@cygnus.com, 24jan91
-
-@item -L @var{searchdir}
-This command adds path @var{searchdir} to the
-list of paths that @code{gld} will search for archive libraries. You
-may use this option any number of times.
-
-@c Should we make any attempt to list the standard paths searched
-@c without listing? When hacking on a new system I often want to know
-@c this, but this may not be the place... it's not constant across
-@c systems, of course, which is what makes it interesting.
-@c pesch@@cygnus.com, 24jan91.
-
-@item -M
-@itemx -m
-Print (to the standard output file) a link map---diagnostic information
-about where symbols are mapped by @code{ld}, and information on global
-common storage allocation.
-
+path-list for occurrences of @code{lib@var{archive}.a} for every
+@var{archive} specified.
+
+On systems which support shared libraries, @code{ld} may also search for
+libraries with extensions other than @code{.a}. Specifically, on ELF
+and SunOS systems, @code{ld} will search a directory for a library with
+an extension of @code{.so} before searching for one with an extension of
+@code{.a}. By convention, a @code{.so} extension indicates a shared
+library.
+
+The linker will search an archive only once, at the location where it is
+specified on the command line. If the archive defines a symbol which
+was undefined in some object which appeared before the archive on the
+command line, the linker will include the appropriate file(s) from the
+archive. However, an undefined symbol in an object appearing later on
+the command line will not cause the linker to search the archive again.
+
+See the @code{-(} option for a way to force the linker to search
+archives multiple times.
+
+You may list the same archive multiple times on the command line.
+
+@ifset GENERIC
+This type of archive searching is standard for Unix linkers. However,
+if you are using @code{ld} on AIX, note that it is different from the
+behaviour of the AIX linker.
+@end ifset
+
+@cindex search directory, from cmd line
+@kindex -L@var{dir}
+@kindex --library-path=@var{dir}
+@item -L@var{searchdir}
+@itemx --library-path=@var{searchdir}
+Add path @var{searchdir} to the list of paths that @code{ld} will search
+for archive libraries and @code{ld} control scripts. You may use this
+option any number of times. The directories are searched in the order
+in which they are specified on the command line. Directories specified
+on the command line are searched before the default directories. All
+@code{-L} options apply to all @code{-l} options, regardless of the
+order in which the options appear.
+
+@ifset UsesEnvVars
+The default set of paths searched (without being specified with
+@samp{-L}) depends on which emulation mode @code{ld} is using, and in
+some cases also on how it was configured. @xref{Environment}.
+@end ifset
+
+The paths can also be specified in a link script with the
+@code{SEARCH_DIR} command. Directories specified this way are searched
+at the point in which the linker script appears in the command line.
+
+@cindex emulation
+@kindex -m @var{emulation}
+@item -m@var{emulation}
+Emulate the @var{emulation} linker. You can list the available
+emulations with the @samp{--verbose} or @samp{-V} options. The default
+depends on how your @code{ld} was configured.
+
+@cindex link map
+@kindex -M
+@kindex --print-map
+@item -M
+@itemx --print-map
+Print (to the standard output) a link map---diagnostic information about
+where symbols are mapped by @code{ld}, and information on global common
+storage allocation.
+
+@kindex -n
+@cindex read-only text
+@cindex NMAGIC
+@kindex --nmagic
+@item -n
+@itemx --nmagic
+Set the text segment to be read only, and mark the output as
+@code{NMAGIC} if possible.
+
+@kindex -N
+@kindex --omagic
+@cindex read/write from cmd line
+@cindex OMAGIC
@item -N
-specifies read and writable @code{text} and @code{data} sections. If
-the output format supports Unix style magic numbers, then OMAGIC is set.
-
-@item -n
-sets the text segment to be read only, and @code{NMAGIC} is written
-if possible.
-
+@itemx --omagic
+Set the text and data sections to be readable and writable. Also, do
+not page-align the data segment. If the output format supports Unix
+style magic numbers, mark the output as @code{OMAGIC}.
+
+@kindex -o @var{output}
+@kindex --output=@var{output}
+@cindex naming the output file
@item -o @var{output}
-@var{output} is a name for the program produced by @code{ld}; if this
-option is not specified, the name @samp{a.out} is used by default.
-
-@item -r
-Generates relocatable output---i.e., generate an output file that can in
-turn serve as input to @code{gld}. As a side effect, this option also
-sets the output file's magic number to @code{OMAGIC}; see @samp{-N}. If this
-option is not specified, an absolute file is produced.
-
-@item -S
-Omits debugger symbol information (but not all symbols) from the output file.
-
+@itemx --output=@var{output}
+Use @var{output} as the name for the program produced by @code{ld}; if this
+option is not specified, the name @file{a.out} is used by default. The
+script command @code{OUTPUT} can also specify the output file name.
+
+@cindex partial link
+@cindex relocatable output
+@kindex -r
+@kindex --relocateable
+@item -r
+@itemx --relocateable
+Generate relocatable output---i.e., generate an output file that can in
+turn serve as input to @code{ld}. This is often called @dfn{partial
+linking}. As a side effect, in environments that support standard Unix
+magic numbers, this option also sets the output file's magic number to
+@code{OMAGIC}.
+@c ; see @code{-N}.
+If this option is not specified, an absolute file is produced. When
+linking C++ programs, this option @emph{will not} resolve references to
+constructors; to do that, use @samp{-Ur}.
+
+This option does the same thing as @samp{-i}.
+
+@kindex -R @var{file}
+@kindex --just-symbols=@var{file}
+@cindex symbol-only input
+@item -R @var{filename}
+@itemx --just-symbols=@var{filename}
+Read symbol names and their addresses from @var{filename}, but do not
+relocate it or include it in the output. This allows your output file
+to refer symbolically to absolute locations of memory defined in other
+programs. You may use this option more than once.
+
+For compatibility with other ELF linkers, if the @code{-R} option is
+followed by a directory name, rather than a file name, it is treated as
+the @code{-rpath} option.
+
+@kindex -s
+@kindex --strip-all
+@cindex strip all symbols
@item -s
-Omits all symbol information from the output file.
-
-@item -T @var{textorg}
-@itemx -Ttext @var{textorg}
-Use @var{textorg} as the starting address for the @code{text} segment of the
-output file. Both forms of this option are equivalent. The option
-argument must be a hexadecimal integer.
+@itemx --strip-all
+Omit all symbol information from the output file.
-@item -Tdata @var{dataorg}
-Use @var{dataorg} as the starting address for the @code{data} segment of
-the output file. The option argument must be a hexadecimal integer.
+@kindex -S
+@kindex --strip-debug
+@cindex strip debugger symbols
+@item -S
+@itemx --strip-debug
+Omit debugger symbol information (but not all symbols) from the output file.
+@kindex -t
+@kindex --trace
+@cindex input files, displaying
@item -t
-Prints names of input files as @code{ld} processes them.
-
-@item -u @var{sym}
-Forces @var{sym} to be entered in the output file as an undefined symbol.
-This may, for example, trigger linking of additional modules from
-standard libraries. @code{-u} may be repeated with different option
-arguments to enter additional undefined symbols. This option is equivalent
-to the @code{EXTERN} linker command.
-
+@itemx --trace
+Print the names of the input files as @code{ld} processes them.
+
+@kindex -T @var{script}
+@kindex --script=@var{script}
+@cindex script files
+@item -T @var{commandfile}
+@itemx --script=@var{commandfile}
+Read link commands from the file @var{commandfile}. These commands
+replace @code{ld}'s default link script (rather than adding to it), so
+@var{commandfile} must specify everything necessary to describe the
+target format. You must use this option if you want to use a command
+which can only appear once in a linker script, such as the
+@code{SECTIONS} or @code{MEMORY} command. @xref{Commands}. If
+@var{commandfile} does not exist, @code{ld} looks for it in the
+directories specified by any preceding @samp{-L} options. Multiple
+@samp{-T} options accumulate.
+
+@kindex -u @var{symbol}
+@kindex --undefined=@var{symbol}
+@cindex undefined symbol
+@item -u @var{symbol}
+@itemx --undefined=@var{symbol}
+Force @var{symbol} to be entered in the output file as an undefined symbol.
+Doing this may, for example, trigger linking of additional modules from
+standard libraries. @samp{-u} may be repeated with different option
+arguments to enter additional undefined symbols.
+@c Nice idea, but no such command: This option is equivalent
+@c to the @code{EXTERN} linker command.
+
+@kindex -v
+@kindex -V
+@kindex --version
+@cindex version
+@item -v
+@itemx --version
+@itemx -V
+Display the version number for @code{ld}. The @code{-V} option also
+lists the supported emulations.
+
+@kindex -x
+@kindex --discard-all
+@cindex deleting local symbols
+@item -x
+@itemx --discard-all
+Delete all local symbols.
+
+@kindex -X
+@kindex --discard-locals
+@cindex local symbols, deleting
+@cindex L, deleting symbols beginning
@item -X
-If @code{-s} or @code{-S} is also specified, delete only local symbols
-beginning with @samp{L}.
-
-@item -z
-@code{-z} sets @code{ZMAGIC}, the default: the @code{text} segment is
-read-only, demand pageable, and shared.
+@itemx --discard-locals
+Delete all temporary local symbols. For most targets, this is all local
+symbols whose names begin with @samp{L}.
+
+@kindex -y @var{symbol}
+@kindex --trace-symbol=@var{symbol}
+@cindex symbol tracing
+@item -y @var{symbol}
+@itemx --trace-symbol=@var{symbol}
+Print the name of each linked file in which @var{symbol} appears. This
+option may be given any number of times. On many systems it is necessary
+to prepend an underscore.
+
+This option is useful when you have an undefined symbol in your link but
+don't know where the reference is coming from.
+
+@kindex -Y @var{path}
+@item -Y @var{path}
+Add @var{path} to the default library search path. This option exists
+for Solaris compatibility.
+
+@kindex -z @var{keyword}
+@item -z @var{keyword}
+This option is ignored for Solaris compatibility.
+
+@kindex -(
+@cindex groups of archives
+@item -( @var{archives} -)
+@itemx --start-group @var{archives} --end-group
+The @var{archives} should be a list of archive files. They may be
+either explicit file names, or @samp{-l} options.
+
+The specified archives are searched repeatedly until no new undefined
+references are created. Normally, an archive is searched only once in
+the order that it is specified on the command line. If a symbol in that
+archive is needed to resolve an undefined symbol referred to by an
+object in an archive that appears later on the command line, the linker
+would not be able to resolve that reference. By grouping the archives,
+they all be searched repeatedly until all possible references are
+resolved.
+
+Using this option has a significant performance cost. It is best to use
+it only when there are unavoidable circular references between two or
+more archives.
+
+@kindex -assert @var{keyword}
+@item -assert @var{keyword}
+This option is ignored for SunOS compatibility.
+
+@kindex -Bdynamic
+@kindex -dy
+@kindex -call_shared
+@item -Bdynamic
+@itemx -dy
+@itemx -call_shared
+Link against dynamic libraries. This is only meaningful on platforms
+for which shared libraries are supported. This option is normally the
+default on such platforms. The different variants of this option are
+for compatibility with various systems. You may use this option
+multiple times on the command line: it affects library searching for
+@code{-l} options which follow it.
+
+@kindex -Bstatic
+@kindex -dn
+@kindex -non_shared
+@kindex -static
+@item -Bstatic
+@itemx -dn
+@itemx -non_shared
+@itemx -static
+Do not link against shared libraries. This is only meaningful on
+platforms for which shared libraries are supported. The different
+variants of this option are for compatibility with various systems. You
+may use this option multiple times on the command line: it affects
+library searching for @code{-l} options which follow it.
+
+@kindex -Bsymbolic
+@item -Bsymbolic
+When creating a shared library, bind references to global symbols to the
+definition within the shared library, if any. Normally, it is possible
+for a program linked against a shared library to override the definition
+within the shared library. This option is only meaningful on ELF
+platforms which support shared libraries.
+
+@cindex cross reference table
+@kindex --cref
+@item --cref
+Output a cross reference table. If a linker map file is being
+generated, the cross reference table is printed to the map file.
+Otherwise, it is printed on the standard output.
+
+The format of the table is intentionally simple, so that it may be
+easily processed by a script if necessary. The symbols are printed out,
+sorted by name. For each symbol, a list of file names is given. If the
+symbol is defined, the first file listed is the location of the
+definition. The remaining files contain references to the symbol.
+
+@cindex symbols, from command line
+@kindex --defsym @var{symbol}=@var{exp}
+@item --defsym @var{symbol}=@var{expression}
+Create a global symbol in the output file, containing the absolute
+address given by @var{expression}. You may use this option as many
+times as necessary to define multiple symbols in the command line. A
+limited form of arithmetic is supported for the @var{expression} in this
+context: you may give a hexadecimal constant or the name of an existing
+symbol, or use @code{+} and @code{-} to add or subtract hexadecimal
+constants or symbols. If you need more elaborate expressions, consider
+using the linker command language from a script (@pxref{Assignment, ,
+Assignment: Symbol Definitions}). @emph{Note:} there should be no
+white space between @var{symbol}, the equals sign (``@key{=}''), and
+@var{expression}.
+
+@cindex dynamic linker, from command line
+@kindex --dynamic-linker @var{file}
+@item --dynamic-linker @var{file}
+Set the name of the dynamic linker. This is only meaningful when
+generating dynamically linked ELF executables. The default dynamic
+linker is normally correct; don't use this unless you know what you are
+doing.
+
+@cindex big-endian objects
+@cindex endianness
+@kindex -EB
+@item -EB
+Link big-endian objects. This affects the default output format.
+
+@cindex little-endian objects
+@kindex -EL
+@item -EL
+Link little-endian objects. This affects the default output format.
+
+@cindex MIPS embedded PIC code
+@kindex --embedded-relocs
+@item --embedded-relocs
+This option is only meaningful when linking MIPS embedded PIC code,
+generated by the -membedded-pic option to the @sc{gnu} compiler and
+assembler. It causes the linker to create a table which may be used at
+runtime to relocate any data which was statically initialized to pointer
+values. See the code in testsuite/ld-empic for details.
+
+@cindex help
+@cindex usage
+@kindex --help
+@item --help
+Print a summary of the command-line options on the standard output and exit.
+
+@cindex link map
+@kindex -Map
+@item -Map @var{mapfile}
+Print to the file @var{mapfile} a link map---diagnostic information
+about where symbols are mapped by @code{ld}, and information on global
+common storage allocation.
-Specifying a relocatable output file (@code{-r}) will also set the magic
-number to @code{OMAGIC}.
+@cindex memory usage
+@kindex --no-keep-memory
+@item --no-keep-memory
+@code{ld} normally optimizes for speed over memory usage by caching the
+symbol tables of input files in memory. This option tells @code{ld} to
+instead optimize for memory usage, by rereading the symbol tables as
+necessary. This may be required if @code{ld} runs out of memory space
+while linking a large executable.
+
+@kindex --no-whole-archive
+@item --no-whole-archive
+Turn off the effect of the @code{--whole-archive} option for subsequent
+archive files.
+
+@cindex output file after errors
+@kindex --noinhibit-exec
+@item --noinhibit-exec
+Retain the executable output file whenever it is still usable.
+Normally, the linker will not produce an output file if it encounters
+errors during the link process; it exits without writing an output file
+when it issues any error whatsoever.
+
+@ifclear SingleFormat
+@kindex --oformat
+@item --oformat @var{output-format}
+@code{ld} may be configured to support more than one kind of object
+file. If your @code{ld} is configured this way, you can use the
+@samp{--oformat} option to specify the binary format for the output
+object file. Even when @code{ld} is configured to support alternative
+object formats, you don't usually need to specify this, as @code{ld}
+should be configured to produce as a default output format the most
+usual format on each machine. @var{output-format} is a text string, the
+name of a particular format supported by the BFD libraries. (You can
+list the available binary formats with @samp{objdump -i}.) The script
+command @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT} can also specify the output format, but
+this option overrides it. @xref{BFD}.
+@end ifclear
+
+@kindex -qmagic
+@item -qmagic
+This option is ignored for Linux compatibility.
+
+@kindex -Qy
+@item -Qy
+This option is ignored for SVR4 compatibility.
+
+@kindex --relax
+@cindex synthesizing linker
+@cindex relaxing addressing modes
+@item --relax
+An option with machine dependent effects.
+@ifset GENERIC
+This option is only supported on a few targets.
+@end ifset
+@ifset H8300
+@xref{H8/300,,@code{ld} and the H8/300}.
+@end ifset
+@ifset I960
+@xref{i960,, @code{ld} and the Intel 960 family}.
+@end ifset
+
+On some platforms, the @samp{--relax} option performs global
+optimizations that become possible when the linker resolves addressing
+in the program, such as relaxing address modes and synthesizing new
+instructions in the output object file.
+
+@ifset GENERIC
+On platforms where this is not supported, @samp{--relax} is accepted,
+but ignored.
+@end ifset
+
+@cindex retaining specified symbols
+@cindex stripping all but some symbols
+@cindex symbols, retaining selectively
+@item --retain-symbols-file @var{filename}
+Retain @emph{only} the symbols listed in the file @var{filename},
+discarding all others. @var{filename} is simply a flat file, with one
+symbol name per line. This option is especially useful in environments
+@ifset GENERIC
+(such as VxWorks)
+@end ifset
+where a large global symbol table is accumulated gradually, to conserve
+run-time memory.
+
+@samp{--retain-symbols-file} does @emph{not} discard undefined symbols,
+or symbols needed for relocations.
+
+You may only specify @samp{--retain-symbols-file} once in the command
+line. It overrides @samp{-s} and @samp{-S}.
+
+@ifset GENERIC
+@item -rpath @var{dir}
+@cindex runtime library search path
+@kindex -rpath
+Add a directory to the runtime library search path. This is used when
+linking an ELF executable with shared objects. All @code{-rpath}
+arguments are concatenated and passed to the runtime linker, which uses
+them to locate shared objects at runtime. The @code{-rpath} option is
+also used when locating shared objects which are needed by shared
+objects explicitly included in the link; see the description of the
+@code{-rpath-link} option. If @code{-rpath} is not used when linking an
+ELF executable, the contents of the environment variable
+@code{LD_RUN_PATH} will be used if it is defined.
+
+The @code{-rpath} option may also be used on SunOS. By default, on
+SunOS, the linker will form a runtime search patch out of all the
+@code{-L} options it is given. If a @code{-rpath} option is used, the
+runtime search path will be formed exclusively using the @code{-rpath}
+options, ignoring the @code{-L} options. This can be useful when using
+gcc, which adds many @code{-L} options which may be on NFS mounted
+filesystems.
+
+For compatibility with other ELF linkers, if the @code{-R} option is
+followed by a directory name, rather than a file name, it is treated as
+the @code{-rpath} option.
+@end ifset
+
+@ifset GENERIC
+@cindex link-time runtime library search path
+@kindex -rpath-link
+@item -rpath-link @var{DIR}
+When using ELF or SunOS, one shared library may require another. This
+happens when an @code{ld -shared} link includes a shared library as one
+of the input files.
+
+When the linker encounters such a dependency when doing a non-shared,
+non-relocateable link, it will automatically try to locate the required
+shared library and include it in the link, if it is not included
+explicitly. In such a case, the @code{-rpath-link} option
+specifies the first set of directories to search. The
+@code{-rpath-link} option may specify a sequence of directory names
+either by specifying a list of names separated by colons, or by
+appearing multiple times.
+
+The linker uses the following search paths to locate required shared
+libraries.
+@enumerate
+@item
+Any directories specified by @code{-rpath-link} options.
+@item
+Any directories specified by @code{-rpath} options. The difference
+between @code{-rpath} and @code{-rpath-link} is that directories
+specified by @code{-rpath} options are included in the executable and
+used at runtime, whereas the @code{-rpath-link} option is only effective
+at link time.
+@item
+On an ELF system, if the @code{-rpath} and @code{rpath-link} options
+were not used, search the contents of the environment variable
+@code{LD_RUN_PATH}.
+@item
+On SunOS, if the @code{-rpath} option was not used, search any
+directories specified using @code{-L} options.
+@item
+For a native linker, the contents of the environment variable
+@code{LD_LIBRARY_PATH}.
+@item
+The default directories, normally @file{/lib} and @file{/usr/lib}.
+@end enumerate
+
+If the required shared library is not found, the linker will issue a
+warning and continue with the link.
+@end ifset
+
+@kindex -shared
+@kindex -Bshareable
+@item -shared
+@itemx -Bshareable
+@cindex shared libraries
+Create a shared library. This is currently only supported on ELF, XCOFF
+and SunOS platforms. On SunOS, the linker will automatically create a
+shared library if the @code{-e} option is not used and there are
+undefined symbols in the link.
+
+@item --sort-common
+@kindex --sort-common
+This option tells @code{ld} to sort the common symbols by size when it
+places them in the appropriate output sections. First come all the one
+byte symbols, then all the two bytes, then all the four bytes, and then
+everything else. This is to prevent gaps between symbols due to
+alignment constraints.
+
+@kindex --split-by-file
+@item --split-by-file
+Similar to @code{--split-by-reloc} but creates a new output section for
+each input file.
+
+@kindex --split-by-reloc
+@item --split-by-reloc @var{count}
+Trys to creates extra sections in the output file so that no single
+output section in the file contains more than @var{count} relocations.
+This is useful when generating huge relocatable for downloading into
+certain real time kernels with the COFF object file format; since COFF
+cannot represent more than 65535 relocations in a single section. Note
+that this will fail to work with object file formats which do not
+support arbitrary sections. The linker will not split up individual
+input sections for redistribution, so if a single input section contains
+more than @var{count} relocations one output section will contain that
+many relocations.
+
+@kindex --stats
+@item --stats
+Compute and display statistics about the operation of the linker, such
+as execution time and memory usage.
+
+@kindex --traditional-format
+@cindex traditional format
+@item --traditional-format
+For some targets, the output of @code{ld} is different in some ways from
+the output of some existing linker. This switch requests @code{ld} to
+use the traditional format instead.
+
+@cindex dbx
+For example, on SunOS, @code{ld} combines duplicate entries in the
+symbol string table. This can reduce the size of an output file with
+full debugging information by over 30 percent. Unfortunately, the SunOS
+@code{dbx} program can not read the resulting program (@code{gdb} has no
+trouble). The @samp{--traditional-format} switch tells @code{ld} to not
+combine duplicate entries.
+
+@kindex -Tbss @var{org}
+@kindex -Tdata @var{org}
+@kindex -Ttext @var{org}
+@cindex segment origins, cmd line
+@item -Tbss @var{org}
+@itemx -Tdata @var{org}
+@itemx -Ttext @var{org}
+Use @var{org} as the starting address for---respectively---the
+@code{bss}, @code{data}, or the @code{text} segment of the output file.
+@var{org} must be a single hexadecimal integer;
+for compatibility with other linkers, you may omit the leading
+@samp{0x} usually associated with hexadecimal values.
+
+@kindex -Ur
+@cindex constructors
+@item -Ur
+For anything other than C++ programs, this option is equivalent to
+@samp{-r}: it generates relocatable output---i.e., an output file that can in
+turn serve as input to @code{ld}. When linking C++ programs, @samp{-Ur}
+@emph{does} resolve references to constructors, unlike @samp{-r}.
+It does not work to use @samp{-Ur} on files that were themselves linked
+with @samp{-Ur}; once the constructor table has been built, it cannot
+be added to. Use @samp{-Ur} only for the last partial link, and
+@samp{-r} for the others.
+
+@kindex --verbose
+@cindex verbose
+@item --verbose
+Display the version number for @code{ld} and list the linker emulations
+supported. Display which input files can and cannot be opened. Display
+the linker script if using a default builtin script.
+
+@kindex --warn-comon
+@cindex warnings, on combining symbols
+@cindex combining symbols, warnings on
+@item --warn-common
+Warn when a common symbol is combined with another common symbol or with
+a symbol definition. Unix linkers allow this somewhat sloppy practice,
+but linkers on some other operating systems do not. This option allows
+you to find potential problems from combining global symbols.
+Unfortunately, some C libraries use this practice, so you may get some
+warnings about symbols in the libraries as well as in your programs.
+
+There are three kinds of global symbols, illustrated here by C examples:
+
+@table @samp
+@item int i = 1;
+A definition, which goes in the initialized data section of the output
+file.
+
+@item extern int i;
+An undefined reference, which does not allocate space.
+There must be either a definition or a common symbol for the
+variable somewhere.
+
+@item int i;
+A common symbol. If there are only (one or more) common symbols for a
+variable, it goes in the uninitialized data area of the output file.
+The linker merges multiple common symbols for the same variable into a
+single symbol. If they are of different sizes, it picks the largest
+size. The linker turns a common symbol into a declaration, if there is
+a definition of the same variable.
+@end table
-See description of @samp{-N}.
+The @samp{--warn-common} option can produce five kinds of warnings.
+Each warning consists of a pair of lines: the first describes the symbol
+just encountered, and the second describes the previous symbol
+encountered with the same name. One or both of the two symbols will be
+a common symbol.
+@enumerate
+@item
+Turning a common symbol into a reference, because there is already a
+definition for the symbol.
+@smallexample
+@var{file}(@var{section}): warning: common of `@var{symbol}'
+ overridden by definition
+@var{file}(@var{section}): warning: defined here
+@end smallexample
-@end table
-@chapter Command Language
+@item
+Turning a common symbol into a reference, because a later definition for
+the symbol is encountered. This is the same as the previous case,
+except that the symbols are encountered in a different order.
+@smallexample
+@var{file}(@var{section}): warning: definition of `@var{symbol}'
+ overriding common
+@var{file}(@var{section}): warning: common is here
+@end smallexample
+@item
+Merging a common symbol with a previous same-sized common symbol.
+@smallexample
+@var{file}(@var{section}): warning: multiple common
+ of `@var{symbol}'
+@var{file}(@var{section}): warning: previous common is here
+@end smallexample
-The command language allows explicit control over the linkage process, allowing
-specification of:
-@table @bullet
-@item input files
-@item file formats
-@item output file format
-@item addresses of sections
-@item placement of common blocks
-@item and more
-@end table
+@item
+Merging a common symbol with a previous larger common symbol.
+@smallexample
+@var{file}(@var{section}): warning: common of `@var{symbol}'
+ overridden by larger common
+@var{file}(@var{section}): warning: larger common is here
+@end smallexample
-A command file may be supplied to the linker, either explicitly through the
-@code{-c} option, or implicitly as an ordinary file. If the linker opens
-a file which does not have a reasonable object or archive format, it tries
-to read the file as if it were a command file.
-@section Structure
-To be added
+@item
+Merging a common symbol with a previous smaller common symbol. This is
+the same as the previous case, except that the symbols are
+encountered in a different order.
+@smallexample
+@var{file}(@var{section}): warning: common of `@var{symbol}'
+ overriding smaller common
+@var{file}(@var{section}): warning: smaller common is here
+@end smallexample
+@end enumerate
+
+@kindex --warn-constructors
+@item --warn-constructors
+Warn if any global constructors are used. This is only useful for a few
+object file formats. For formats like COFF or ELF, the linker can not
+detect the use of global constructors.
+
+@kindex --warn-multiple-gp
+@item --warn-multiple-gp
+Warn if multiple global pointer values are required in the output file.
+This is only meaningful for certain processors, such as the Alpha.
+Specifically, some processors put large-valued constants in a special
+section. A special register (the global pointer) points into the middle
+of this section, so that constants can be loaded efficiently via a
+base-register relative addressing mode. Since the offset in
+base-register relative mode is fixed and relatively small (e.g., 16
+bits), this limits the maximum size of the constant pool. Thus, in
+large programs, it is often necessary to use multiple global pointer
+values in order to be able to address all possible constants. This
+option causes a warning to be issued whenever this case occurs.
+
+@kindex --warn-once
+@cindex warnings, on undefined symbols
+@cindex undefined symbols, warnings on
+@item --warn-once
+Only warn once for each undefined symbol, rather than once per module
+which refers to it.
+
+@kindex --warn-section-align
+@cindex warnings, on section alignment
+@cindex section alignment, warnings on
+@item --warn-section-align
+Warn if the address of an output section is changed because of
+alignment. Typically, the alignment will be set by an input section.
+The address will only be changed if it not explicitly specified; that
+is, if the @code{SECTIONS} command does not specify a start address for
+the section (@pxref{SECTIONS}).
+
+@kindex --whole-archive
+@cindex including an entire archive
+@item --whole-archive
+For each archive mentioned on the command line after the
+@code{--whole-archive} option, include every object file in the archive
+in the link, rather than searching the archive for the required object
+files. This is normally used to turn an archive file into a shared
+library, forcing every object to be included in the resulting shared
+library. This option may be used more than once.
+
+@kindex --wrap
+@item --wrap @var{symbol}
+Use a wrapper function for @var{symbol}. Any undefined reference to
+@var{symbol} will be resolved to @code{__wrap_@var{symbol}}. Any
+undefined reference to @code{__real_@var{symbol}} will be resolved to
+@var{symbol}.
+
+This can be used to provide a wrapper for a system function. The
+wrapper function should be called @code{__wrap_@var{symbol}}. If it
+wishes to call the system function, it should call
+@code{__real_@var{symbol}}.
+
+Here is a trivial example:
+
+@smallexample
+void *
+__wrap_malloc (int c)
+@{
+ printf ("malloc called with %ld\n", c);
+ return __real_malloc (c);
+@}
+@end smallexample
+
+If you link other code with this file using @code{--wrap malloc}, then
+all calls to @code{malloc} will call the function @code{__wrap_malloc}
+instead. The call to @code{__real_malloc} in @code{__wrap_malloc} will
+call the real @code{malloc} function.
+
+You may wish to provide a @code{__real_malloc} function as well, so that
+links without the @code{--wrap} option will succeed. If you do this,
+you should not put the definition of @code{__real_malloc} in the same
+file as @code{__wrap_malloc}; if you do, the assembler may resolve the
+call before the linker has a chance to wrap it to @code{malloc}.
-@section Expressions
-The syntax for expressions in the command language is identical to that of
-C expressions, with the following features:
-@table @bullet
-@item All expressions evaluated as integers and
-are of ``long'' or ``unsigned long'' type.
-@item All constants are integers.
-@item All of the C arithmetic operators are provided.
-@item Global variables may be referenced, defined and created.
-@item Build in functions may be called.
@end table
-@section Expressions
-
-The linker has a practice of ``lazy evaluation'' for expressions; it only
-calculates an expression when absolutely necessary. For instance,
-when the linker reads in the command file it has to know the values
-of the start address and the length of the memory regions for linkage to continue, so these
-values are worked out, but other values (such as symbol values) are not
-known or needed until after storage allocation.
-They are evaluated later, when the other
-information, such as the sizes of output sections are available for use in
-the symbol assignment expression.
-
-When a linker expression is evaluated and assigned to a variable it is given
-either an absolute or a relocatable type. An absolute expression type
-is one in which the symbol contains the value that it will have in the
-output file, a relocateable expression type is one in which the value
-is expressed as a fixed offset from the base of a section.
+@ifset UsesEnvVars
+@node Environment
+@section Environment Variables
+
+You can change the behavior of @code{ld} with the environment
+variable @code{GNUTARGET}.
+
+@kindex GNUTARGET
+@cindex default input format
+@code{GNUTARGET} determines the input-file object format if you don't
+use @samp{-b} (or its synonym @samp{--format}). Its value should be one
+of the BFD names for an input format (@pxref{BFD}). If there is no
+@code{GNUTARGET} in the environment, @code{ld} uses the natural format
+of the target. If @code{GNUTARGET} is set to @code{default} then BFD
+attempts to discover the input format by examining binary input files;
+this method often succeeds, but there are potential ambiguities, since
+there is no method of ensuring that the magic number used to specify
+object-file formats is unique. However, the configuration procedure for
+BFD on each system places the conventional format for that system first
+in the search-list, so ambiguities are resolved in favor of convention.
+@end ifset
+
+@node Commands
+@chapter Command Language
-The type of the expression is controlled by its position in the script
-file. A symbol assigned within a @code{SECTION} specification is
-created relative to the base of the section, a symbol assigned in any
-other place is created as an absolute symbol. Since a symbol created
-within a @code{SECTION} specification is relative to the base of the
-section it will remain relocatable if relocatable output is requested.
-A symbol may be created with an absolute value even when assigned to
-within a @code{SECTION} specification by using the absolute assignment
-function @code{ABSOLUTE} For example, to create an absolute symbol
-whose address is the last byte of the output section @code{.data}:
-@example
-.data :
- @{
- *(.data)
- _edata = ABSOLUTE(.) ;
- @}
-@end example
+@cindex command files
+The command language provides explicit control over the link process,
+allowing complete specification of the mapping between the linker's
+input files and its output. It controls:
+@itemize @bullet
+@item
+input files
+@item
+file formats
+@item
+output file layout
+@item
+addresses of sections
+@item
+placement of common blocks
+@end itemize
-Unless quoted, symbol names start with a letter, underscore, point or
-minus sign and may include any letters, underscores, digits, points,
-and minus signs. Unquoted symbol names must not conflict with any
-keywords. To specify a symbol which contains odd characters or has
-the same name as a keyword surround it in double quotes:
-@example
- ``SECTION'' = 9;
- ``with a space'' = ``also with a space'' + 10;
-@end example
+You may supply a command file (also known as a linker script) to the
+linker either explicitly through the @samp{-T} option, or implicitly as
+an ordinary file. Normally you should use the @samp{-T} option. An
+implicit linker script should only be used when you want to augment,
+rather than replace, the default linker script; typically an implicit
+linker script would consist only of @code{INPUT} or @code{GROUP}
+commands.
+
+If the linker opens a file which it cannot recognize as a supported
+object or archive format, nor as a linker script, it reports an error.
+
+@menu
+* Scripts:: Linker Scripts
+* Expressions:: Expressions
+* MEMORY:: MEMORY Command
+* SECTIONS:: SECTIONS Command
+* PHDRS:: PHDRS Command
+* Entry Point:: The Entry Point
+* Option Commands:: Option Commands
+@end menu
+
+@node Scripts
+@section Linker Scripts
+The @code{ld} command language is a collection of statements; some are
+simple keywords setting a particular option, some are used to select and
+group input files or name output files; and two statement
+types have a fundamental and pervasive impact on the linking process.
+
+@cindex fundamental script commands
+@cindex commands, fundamental
+@cindex output file layout
+@cindex layout of output file
+The most fundamental command of the @code{ld} command language is the
+@code{SECTIONS} command (@pxref{SECTIONS}). Every meaningful command
+script must have a @code{SECTIONS} command: it specifies a
+``picture'' of the output file's layout, in varying degrees of detail.
+No other command is required in all cases.
+
+The @code{MEMORY} command complements @code{SECTIONS} by describing the
+available memory in the target architecture. This command is optional;
+if you don't use a @code{MEMORY} command, @code{ld} assumes sufficient
+memory is available in a contiguous block for all output.
+@xref{MEMORY}.
+
+@cindex comments
+You may include comments in linker scripts just as in C: delimited
+by @samp{/*} and @samp{*/}. As in C, comments are syntactically
+equivalent to whitespace.
+
+@node Expressions
+@section Expressions
+@cindex expression syntax
+@cindex arithmetic
+Many useful commands involve arithmetic expressions. The syntax for
+expressions in the command language is identical to that of C
+expressions, with the following features:
+@itemize @bullet
+@item
+All expressions evaluated as integers and
+are of ``long'' or ``unsigned long'' type.
+@item
+All constants are integers.
+@item
+All of the C arithmetic operators are provided.
+@item
+You may reference, define, and create global variables.
+@item
+You may call special purpose built-in functions.
+@end itemize
+@menu
+* Integers:: Integers
+* Symbols:: Symbol Names
+* Location Counter:: The Location Counter
+* Operators:: Operators
+* Evaluation:: Evaluation
+* Assignment:: Assignment: Defining Symbols
+* Arithmetic Functions:: Built-In Functions
+* Semicolons:: Semicolon Usage
+@end menu
+
+@node Integers
@subsection Integers
+@cindex integer notation
+@cindex octal integers
An octal integer is @samp{0} followed by zero or more of the octal
digits (@samp{01234567}).
+@smallexample
+_as_octal = 0157255;
+@end smallexample
+@cindex decimal integers
A decimal integer starts with a non-zero digit followed by zero or
more digits (@samp{0123456789}).
+@smallexample
+_as_decimal = 57005;
+@end smallexample
+@cindex hexadecimal integers
+@kindex 0x
A hexadecimal integer is @samp{0x} or @samp{0X} followed by one or
more hexadecimal digits chosen from @samp{0123456789abcdefABCDEF}.
-
-Integers have the usual values. To denote a negative integer, use
-the unary operator @samp{-} discussed under expressions.
-
-Additionally the suffixes @code{K} and @code{M} may be used to multiply the
-previous constant by 1024 or
+@smallexample
+_as_hex = 0xdead;
+@end smallexample
+
+@cindex negative integers
+To write a negative integer, use
+the prefix operator @samp{-} (@pxref{Operators}).
+@smallexample
+_as_neg = -57005;
+@end smallexample
+
+@cindex scaled integers
+@cindex K and M integer suffixes
+@cindex M and K integer suffixes
+@cindex suffixes for integers
+@cindex integer suffixes
+Additionally the suffixes @code{K} and @code{M} may be used to scale a
+constant by
+@c TEXI2ROFF-KILL
+@ifinfo
+@c END TEXI2ROFF-KILL
+@code{1024} or @code{1024*1024}
+@c TEXI2ROFF-KILL
+@end ifinfo
@tex
-$1024^2$
+${\rm 1024}$ or ${\rm 1024}^2$
@end tex
-respectively.
-
-@example
- _as_decimal = 57005;
- _as_hex = 0xdead;
- _as_octal = 0157255;
-
- _4k_1 = 4K;
- _4k_2 = 4096;
- _4k_3 = 0x1000;
-@end example
+@c END TEXI2ROFF-KILL
+respectively. For example, the following all refer to the same quantity:
+
+@smallexample
+ _fourk_1 = 4K;
+ _fourk_2 = 4096;
+ _fourk_3 = 0x1000;
+@end smallexample
+
+@node Symbols
+@subsection Symbol Names
+@cindex symbol names
+@cindex names
+@cindex quoted symbol names
+@kindex "
+Unless quoted, symbol names start with a letter, underscore, or point
+and may include any letters, underscores, digits, points,
+and hyphens. Unquoted symbol names must not conflict with any
+keywords. You can specify a symbol which contains odd characters or has
+the same name as a keyword, by surrounding the symbol name in double quotes:
+@smallexample
+ "SECTION" = 9;
+ "with a space" = "also with a space" + 10;
+@end smallexample
+
+Since symbols can contain many non-alphabetic characters, it is safest
+to delimit symbols with spaces. For example, @samp{A-B} is one symbol,
+whereas @samp{A - B} is an expression involving subtraction.
+
+@node Location Counter
+@subsection The Location Counter
+@kindex .
+@cindex dot
+@cindex location counter
+@cindex current output location
+The special linker variable @dfn{dot} @samp{.} always contains the
+current output location counter. Since the @code{.} always refers to
+a location in an output section, it must always appear in an
+expression within a @code{SECTIONS} command. The @code{.} symbol
+may appear anywhere that an ordinary symbol is allowed in an
+expression, but its assignments have a side effect. Assigning a value
+to the @code{.} symbol will cause the location counter to be moved.
+@cindex holes
+This may be used to create holes in the output section. The location
+counter may never be moved backwards.
+@smallexample
+SECTIONS
+@{
+ output :
+ @{
+ file1(.text)
+ . = . + 1000;
+ file2(.text)
+ . += 1000;
+ file3(.text)
+ @} = 0x1234;
+@}
+@end smallexample
+@noindent
+In the previous example, @code{file1} is located at the beginning of the
+output section, then there is a 1000 byte gap. Then @code{file2}
+appears, also with a 1000 byte gap following before @code{file3} is
+loaded. The notation @samp{= 0x1234} specifies what data to write in
+the gaps (@pxref{Section Options}).
+
+@iftex
+@vfill
+@end iftex
+
+@need 2000
+@node Operators
@subsection Operators
-The linker provides the standard C set of arithmetic operators, with
+@cindex Operators for arithmetic
+@cindex arithmetic operators
+@cindex precedence in expressions
+The linker recognizes the standard C set of arithmetic operators, with
the standard bindings and precedence levels:
-@example
-
-@end example
+@c TEXI2ROFF-KILL
+@ifinfo
+@c END TEXI2ROFF-KILL
+@smallexample
+precedence associativity Operators Notes
+(highest)
+1 left ! - ~ (1)
+2 left * / %
+3 left + -
+4 left >> <<
+5 left == != > < <= >=
+6 left &
+7 left |
+8 left &&
+9 left ||
+10 right ? :
+11 right &= += -= *= /= (2)
+(lowest)
+@end smallexample
+Notes:
+(1) Prefix operators
+(2) @xref{Assignment}.
+@c TEXI2ROFF-KILL
+@end ifinfo
@tex
-
-\vbox{\offinterlineskip
+\vskip \baselineskip
+%"lispnarrowing" is the extra indent used generally for smallexample
+\hskip\lispnarrowing\vbox{\offinterlineskip
\hrule
\halign
-{\vrule#&\hfil#\hfil&\vrule#&\hfil#\hfil&\vrule#&\hfil#\hfil&\vrule#\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
-&Level&& associativity &&Operators&\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
+{\vrule#&\strut\hfil\ #\ \hfil&\vrule#&\strut\hfil\ #\ \hfil&\vrule#&\strut\hfil\ {\tt #}\ \hfil&\vrule#\cr
+height2pt&\omit&&\omit&&\omit&\cr
+&Precedence&& Associativity &&{\rm Operators}&\cr
+height2pt&\omit&&\omit&&\omit&\cr
\noalign{\hrule}
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
-&highest&&&&&&\cr
-&1&&left&&$ ! - ~$&\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
-&2&&left&&* / \%&\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
-&3&&left&&+ -&\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
-&4&&left&&$>> <<$&\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
-&5&&left&&$== != > < <= >=$&\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
+height2pt&\omit&&\omit&&\omit&\cr
+&highest&&&&&\cr
+% '176 is tilde, '~' in tt font
+&1&&left&&\qquad- \char'176\ !\qquad\dag&\cr
+&2&&left&&* / \%&\cr
+&3&&left&&+ -&\cr
+&4&&left&&>> <<&\cr
+&5&&left&&== != > < <= >=&\cr
&6&&left&&\&&\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
&7&&left&&|&\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
&8&&left&&{\&\&}&\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
&9&&left&&||&\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
-&10&&right&&? :&\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr
-&11&&right&&$${\&= += -= *= /=}&\cr
-&lowest&&&&&&\cr
-height2pt&&&&&\cr}
+&10&&right&&? :&\cr
+&11&&right&&\qquad\&= += -= *= /=\qquad\ddag&\cr
+&lowest&&&&&\cr
+height2pt&\omit&&\omit&&\omit&\cr}
\hrule}
@end tex
+@iftex
+{
+@obeylines@parskip=0pt@parindent=0pt
+@dag@quad Prefix operators.
+@ddag@quad @xref{Assignment}.
+}
+@end iftex
+@c END TEXI2ROFF-KILL
+
+@node Evaluation
+@subsection Evaluation
+
+@cindex lazy evaluation
+@cindex expression evaluation order
+The linker uses ``lazy evaluation'' for expressions; it only calculates
+an expression when absolutely necessary. The linker needs the value of
+the start address, and the lengths of memory regions, in order to do any
+linking at all; these values are computed as soon as possible when the
+linker reads in the command file. However, other values (such as symbol
+values) are not known or needed until after storage allocation. Such
+values are evaluated later, when other information (such as the sizes of
+output sections) is available for use in the symbol assignment
+expression.
+
+@node Assignment
+@subsection Assignment: Defining Symbols
+@cindex assignment in scripts
+@cindex symbol definition, scripts
+@cindex variables, defining
+You may create global symbols, and assign values (addresses) to global
+symbols, using any of the C assignment operators:
-@section Built in Functions
-The command language provides built in functions for use in
-expressions in linkage scripts.
-@table @bullet
-@item @code{ALIGN(@var{exp})}
-returns the result of the current location counter (@code{dot})
-aligned to the next @var{exp} boundary, where @var{exp} is a power of
-two. This is equivalent to @code{(. + @var{exp} -1) & ~(@var{exp}-1)}.
-As an example, to align the output @code{.data} section to the
-next 0x2000 byte boundary after the preceding section and to set a
-variable within the section to the next 0x8000 boundary after the
-input sections:
-@example
- .data ALIGN(0x2000) :@{
- *(.data)
- variable = ALIGN(0x8000);
- @}
-@end example
+@table @code
+@item @var{symbol} = @var{expression} ;
+@itemx @var{symbol} &= @var{expression} ;
+@itemx @var{symbol} += @var{expression} ;
+@itemx @var{symbol} -= @var{expression} ;
+@itemx @var{symbol} *= @var{expression} ;
+@itemx @var{symbol} /= @var{expression} ;
+@end table
-@item @code{ADDR(@var{section name})}
-returns the absolute address of the named section if the section has
-already been bound. In the following examples the @code{symbol_1} and
-@code{symbol_2} are assigned identical values:
-@example
- .output1:
- @{
- start_of_output_1 $= .;
- ...
- @}
- .output:
- @{
- symbol_1 = ADDR(.output1);
- symbol_2 = start_of_output_1;
- @}
-@end example
+Two things distinguish assignment from other operators in @code{ld}
+expressions.
+@itemize @bullet
+@item
+Assignment may only be used at the root of an expression;
+@samp{a=b+3;} is allowed, but @samp{a+b=3;} is an error.
+
+@kindex ;
+@cindex semicolon
+@item
+You must place a trailing semicolon (``@key{;}'') at the end of an
+assignment statement.
+@end itemize
-@item @code{SIZEOF(@var{section name})}
-returns the size in bytes of the named section, if the section has
-been allocated. In the following example the @code{symbol_1} and
+Assignment statements may appear:
+@itemize @bullet
+@item
+as commands in their own right in an @code{ld} script; or
+@item
+as independent statements within a @code{SECTIONS} command; or
+@item
+as part of the contents of a section definition in a
+@code{SECTIONS} command.
+@end itemize
+
+The first two cases are equivalent in effect---both define a symbol with
+an absolute address. The last case defines a symbol whose address is
+relative to a particular section (@pxref{SECTIONS}).
+
+@cindex absolute and relocatable symbols
+@cindex relocatable and absolute symbols
+@cindex symbols, relocatable and absolute
+When a linker expression is evaluated and assigned to a variable, it is
+given either an absolute or a relocatable type. An absolute expression
+type is one in which the symbol contains the value that it will have in
+the output file; a relocatable expression type is one in which the
+value is expressed as a fixed offset from the base of a section.
+
+The type of the expression is controlled by its position in the script
+file. A symbol assigned within a section definition is created relative
+to the base of the section; a symbol assigned in any other place is
+created as an absolute symbol. Since a symbol created within a
+section definition is relative to the base of the section, it
+will remain relocatable if relocatable output is requested. A symbol
+may be created with an absolute value even when assigned to within a
+section definition by using the absolute assignment function
+@code{ABSOLUTE}. For example, to create an absolute symbol whose address
+is the last byte of an output section named @code{.data}:
+@smallexample
+SECTIONS@{ @dots{}
+ .data :
+ @{
+ *(.data)
+ _edata = ABSOLUTE(.) ;
+ @}
+@dots{} @}
+@end smallexample
+
+The linker tries to put off the evaluation of an assignment until all
+the terms in the source expression are known (@pxref{Evaluation}). For
+instance, the sizes of sections cannot be known until after allocation,
+so assignments dependent upon these are not performed until after
+allocation. Some expressions, such as those depending upon the location
+counter @dfn{dot}, @samp{.} must be evaluated during allocation. If the
+result of an expression is required, but the value is not available,
+then an error results. For example, a script like the following
+@smallexample
+SECTIONS @{ @dots{}
+ text 9+this_isnt_constant :
+ @{ @dots{}
+ @}
+@dots{} @}
+@end smallexample
+@kindex Non constant expression
+@noindent
+will cause the error message ``@code{Non constant expression for initial
+address}''.
+
+@cindex provide
+In some cases, it is desirable for a linker script to define a symbol
+only if it is referenced, and only if it is not defined by any object
+included in the link. For example, traditional linkers defined the
+symbol @samp{etext}. However, ANSI C requires that the user be able to
+use @samp{etext} as a function name without encountering an error.
+The @code{PROVIDE} keyword may be used to define a symbol, such as
+@samp{etext}, only if it is referenced but not defined. The syntax is
+@code{PROVIDE(@var{symbol} = @var{expression})}.
+
+@node Arithmetic Functions
+@subsection Arithmetic Functions
+@cindex functions in expression language
+The command language includes a number of built-in
+functions for use in link script expressions.
+@table @code
+@kindex ABSOLUTE(@var{exp})
+@cindex expression, absolute
+@item ABSOLUTE(@var{exp})
+Return the absolute (non-relocatable, as opposed to non-negative) value
+of the expression @var{exp}. Primarily useful to assign an absolute
+value to a symbol within a section definition, where symbol values are
+normally section-relative.
+
+@kindex ADDR(@var{section})
+@cindex section address
+@item ADDR(@var{section})
+Return the absolute address of the named @var{section}. Your script must
+previously have defined the location of that section. In the following
+example, @code{symbol_1} and @code{symbol_2} are assigned identical
+values:
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS@{ @dots{}
+ .output1 :
+ @{
+ start_of_output_1 = ABSOLUTE(.);
+ @dots{}
+ @}
+ .output :
+ @{
+ symbol_1 = ADDR(.output1);
+ symbol_2 = start_of_output_1;
+ @}
+@dots{} @}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@kindex LOADADDR(@var{section})
+@cindex section load address
+@item LOADADDR(@var{section})
+Return the absolute load address of the named @var{section}. This is
+normally the same as @code{ADDR}, but it may be different if the
+@code{AT} keyword is used in the section definition (@pxref{Section
+Options}).
+
+@kindex ALIGN(@var{exp})
+@cindex rounding up location counter
+@item ALIGN(@var{exp})
+Return the result of the current location counter (@code{.}) aligned to
+the next @var{exp} boundary. @var{exp} must be an expression whose
+value is a power of two. This is equivalent to
+@smallexample
+(. + @var{exp} - 1) & ~(@var{exp} - 1)
+@end smallexample
+
+@code{ALIGN} doesn't change the value of the location counter---it just
+does arithmetic on it. As an example, to align the output @code{.data}
+section to the next @code{0x2000} byte boundary after the preceding
+section and to set a variable within the section to the next
+@code{0x8000} boundary after the input sections:
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS@{ @dots{}
+ .data ALIGN(0x2000): @{
+ *(.data)
+ variable = ALIGN(0x8000);
+ @}
+@dots{} @}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+@noindent
+The first use of @code{ALIGN} in this example specifies the location of
+a section because it is used as the optional @var{start} attribute of a
+section definition (@pxref{Section Options}). The second use simply
+defines the value of a variable.
+
+The built-in @code{NEXT} is closely related to @code{ALIGN}.
+
+@kindex DEFINED(@var{symbol})
+@cindex symbol defaults
+@item DEFINED(@var{symbol})
+Return 1 if @var{symbol} is in the linker global symbol table and is
+defined, otherwise return 0. You can use this function to provide default
+values for symbols. For example, the following command-file fragment shows how
+to set a global symbol @code{begin} to the first location in the
+@code{.text} section---but if a symbol called @code{begin} already
+existed, its value is preserved:
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS@{ @dots{}
+ .text : @{
+ begin = DEFINED(begin) ? begin : . ;
+ @dots{}
+ @}
+@dots{} @}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@kindex NEXT(@var{exp})
+@cindex unallocated address, next
+@item NEXT(@var{exp})
+Return the next unallocated address that is a multiple of @var{exp}.
+This function is closely related to @code{ALIGN(@var{exp})}; unless you
+use the @code{MEMORY} command to define discontinuous memory for the
+output file, the two functions are equivalent.
+
+@kindex SIZEOF(@var{section})
+@cindex section size
+@item SIZEOF(@var{section})
+Return the size in bytes of the named @var{section}, if that section has
+been allocated. In the following example, @code{symbol_1} and
@code{symbol_2} are assigned identical values:
-@example
- .output @{
- .start = . ;
- ...
- .end = .;
- @}
- symbol_1 = .end - .start;
- symbol_2 = SIZEOF(.output);
-@end example
+@c What does it return if the section hasn't been allocated? 0?
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS@{ @dots{}
+ .output @{
+ .start = . ;
+ @dots{}
+ .end = . ;
+ @}
+ symbol_1 = .end - .start ;
+ symbol_2 = SIZEOF(.output);
+@dots{} @}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@kindex SIZEOF_HEADERS
+@cindex header size
+@kindex sizeof_headers
+@item SIZEOF_HEADERS
+@itemx sizeof_headers
+Return the size in bytes of the output file's headers. You can use this number
+as the start address of the first section, if you choose, to facilitate
+paging.
+
+@kindex MAX
+@item MAX(@var{exp1}, @var{exp2})
+Returns the maximum of @var{exp1} and @var{exp2}.
+
+@kindex MIN
+@item MIN(@var{exp1}, @var{exp2})
+Returns the minimum of @var{exp1} and @var{exp2}.
-@item @code{DEFINED(@var{symbol name})}
-Returns 1 if the symbol is in the linker global symbol table and is
-defined, otherwise it returns 0. This example shows the setting of a
-global symbol @code{begin} to the first location in the @code{.text}
-section, only if there is no other symbol
-called @code{begin} already:
-@example
- .text: @{
- begin = DEFINED(begin) ? begin : . ;
- ...
- @}
-@end example
-@end table
-@page
-@section MEMORY Directive
-The linker's default configuration is for all memory to be
-allocatable. This state may be overridden by using the @code{MEMORY}
-directive. The @code{MEMORY} directive describes the location and
-size of blocks of memory in the target. Careful use can describe
-memory regions which may or may not be used by the linker. The linker
-does not shuffle sections to fit into the available regions, but does
-move the requested sections into the correct regions and issue errors
-when the regions become too full. The syntax is:
-
-@example
- MEMORY
- @{
-@tex
- $\bigl\lbrace {\it name_1} ({\it attr_1}):$ ORIGIN = ${\it origin_1},$ LENGTH $= {\it len_1} \bigr\rbrace $
-@end tex
+@end table
+
+@node Semicolons
+@subsection Semicolons
+
+Semicolons (``@key{;}'') are required in the following places. In all
+other places they can appear for aesthetic reasons but are otherwise ignored.
- @}
-@end example
@table @code
+@item Assignment
+Semicolons must appear at the end of assignment expressions.
+@xref{Assignment}
+
+@item PHDRS
+Semicolons must appear at the end of a @code{PHDRS} statement.
+@xref{PHDRS}
+@end table
+
+@node MEMORY
+@section Memory Layout
+@kindex MEMORY
+@cindex regions of memory
+@cindex discontinuous memory
+@cindex allocating memory
+The linker's default configuration permits allocation of all available memory.
+You can override this configuration by using the @code{MEMORY} command. The
+@code{MEMORY} command describes the location and size of blocks of
+memory in the target. By using it carefully, you can describe which
+memory regions may be used by the linker, and which memory regions it
+must avoid. The linker does not shuffle sections to fit into the
+available regions, but does move the requested sections into the correct
+regions and issue errors when the regions become too full.
+
+A command file may contain at most one use of the @code{MEMORY}
+command; however, you can define as many blocks of memory within it as
+you wish. The syntax is:
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+MEMORY
+ @{
+ @var{name} (@var{attr}) : ORIGIN = @var{origin}, LENGTH = @var{len}
+ @dots{}
+ @}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+@table @code
+@cindex naming memory regions
@item @var{name}
is a name used internally by the linker to refer to the region. Any
symbol name may be used. The region names are stored in a separate
-name space, and will not conflict with symbols, filenames or section
-names.
-@item @var{attr}
-is an optional list of attributes, parsed for compatibility with the
-AT+T linker
-but ignored by the both the AT+T and the gnu linker.
+name space, and will not conflict with symbols, file names or section
+names. Use distinct names to specify multiple regions.
+
+@cindex memory region attributes
+@item (@var{attr})
+is an optional list of attributes, permitted for compatibility with the
+AT&T linker but not used by @code{ld} beyond checking that the
+attribute list is valid. Valid attribute lists must be made up of the
+characters ``@code{LIRWX}''. If you omit the attribute list, you may
+omit the parentheses around it as well.
+
+@kindex ORIGIN =
+@kindex o =
+@kindex org =
@item @var{origin}
-is the start address of the region in physical memory expressed as
-standard linker expression which must evaluate to a constant before
+is the start address of the region in physical memory. It is
+an expression that must evaluate to a constant before
memory allocation is performed. The keyword @code{ORIGIN} may be
-abbreviated to @code{org} or @code{o}.
+abbreviated to @code{org} or @code{o} (but not, for example, @samp{ORG}).
+
+@kindex LENGTH =
+@kindex len =
+@kindex l =
@item @var{len}
-is the size in bytes of the region as a standard linker expression.
-The keyword @code{LENGTH} may be abbreviated to @code{len} or @code{l}
+is the size in bytes of the region (an expression).
+The keyword @code{LENGTH} may be abbreviated to @code{len} or @code{l}.
@end table
For example, to specify that memory has two regions available for
-allocation; one starting at 0 for 256k, and the other starting at
-0x40000000 for four megabytes:
-
-@example
- MEMORY
- @{
- rom : ORIGIN= 0, LENGTH = 256K
- ram : ORIGIN= 0x40000000, LENGTH = 4M
- @}
-
-@end example
+allocation---one starting at 0 for 256 kilobytes, and the other
+starting at @code{0x40000000} for four megabytes:
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+MEMORY
+ @{
+ rom : ORIGIN = 0, LENGTH = 256K
+ ram : org = 0x40000000, l = 4M
+ @}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+Once you have defined a region of memory named @var{mem}, you can direct
+specific output sections there by using a command ending in
+@samp{>@var{mem}} within the @code{SECTIONS} command (@pxref{Section
+Options}). If the combined output sections directed to a region are too
+big for the region, the linker will issue an error message.
+
+@node SECTIONS
+@section Specifying Output Sections
+
+@kindex SECTIONS
+The @code{SECTIONS} command controls exactly where input sections are
+placed into output sections, their order in the output file, and to
+which output sections they are allocated.
+
+You may use at most one @code{SECTIONS} command in a script file,
+but you can have as many statements within it as you wish. Statements
+within the @code{SECTIONS} command can do one of three things:
-If the combined output sections directed to a region are too big for
-the region the linker will emit an error message.
-@page
-@section SECTIONS Directive
-The @code{SECTIONS} directive
-controls exactly where input sections are placed into output sections, their
-order and to which output sections they are allocated.
+@itemize @bullet
+@item
+define the entry point;
-When no @code{SECTIONS} directives are specified, the default action
-of the linker is to place each input section into an identically named
-output section in the order that the sections appear in the first
-file, and then the order of the files.
+@item
+assign a value to a symbol;
-The syntax of the @code{SECTIONS} directive is:
+@item
+describe the placement of a named output section, and which input
+sections go into it.
+@end itemize
-@example
- SECTIONS
- @{
-@tex
- $\bigl\lbrace {\it name_n}\bigl[options\bigr]\colon$ $\bigl\lbrace {\it statements_n} \bigr\rbrace \bigl[ = {\it fill expression } \bigr] \bigl[ > mem spec \bigr] \bigr\rbrace $
-@end tex
- @}
-@end example
+You can also use the first two operations---defining the entry point and
+defining symbols---outside the @code{SECTIONS} command: @pxref{Entry
+Point}, and @ref{Assignment}. They are permitted here as well for
+your convenience in reading the script, so that symbols and the entry
+point can be defined at meaningful points in your output-file layout.
+
+If you do not use a @code{SECTIONS} command, the linker places each input
+section into an identically named output section in the order that the
+sections are first encountered in the input files. If all input sections
+are present in the first file, for example, the order of sections in the
+output file will match the order in the first input file.
+
+@menu
+* Section Definition:: Section Definitions
+* Section Placement:: Section Placement
+* Section Data Expressions:: Section Data Expressions
+* Section Options:: Optional Section Attributes
+* Overlays:: Overlays
+@end menu
+
+@node Section Definition
+@subsection Section Definitions
+@cindex section definition
+The most frequently used statement in the @code{SECTIONS} command is
+the @dfn{section definition}, which specifies the
+properties of an output section: its location, alignment, contents,
+fill pattern, and target memory region. Most of
+these specifications are optional; the simplest form of a section
+definition is
+@smallexample
+SECTIONS @{ @dots{}
+ @var{secname} : @{
+ @var{contents}
+ @}
+@dots{} @}
+@end smallexample
+@cindex naming output sections
+@noindent
+@var{secname} is the name of the output section, and @var{contents} a
+specification of what goes there---for example, a list of input files or
+sections of input files (@pxref{Section Placement}). As you might
+assume, the whitespace shown is optional. You do need the colon
+@samp{:} and the braces @samp{@{@}}, however.
+
+@var{secname} must meet the constraints of your output format. In
+formats which only support a limited number of sections, such as
+@code{a.out}, the name must be one of the names supported by the format
+(@code{a.out}, for example, allows only @code{.text}, @code{.data} or
+@code{.bss}). If the output format supports any number of sections, but
+with numbers and not names (as is the case for Oasys), the name should be
+supplied as a quoted numeric string. A section name may consist of any
+sequence of characters, but any name which does not conform to the standard
+@code{ld} symbol name syntax must be quoted.
+@xref{Symbols, , Symbol Names}.
+
+The special @var{secname} @samp{/DISCARD/} may be used to discard input
+sections. Any sections which are assigned to an output section named
+@samp{/DISCARD/} are not included in the final link output.
+
+The linker will not create output sections which do not have any
+contents. This is for convenience when referring to input sections that
+may or may not exist. For example,
+@smallexample
+.foo @{ *(.foo) @}
+@end smallexample
+will only create a @samp{.foo} section in the output file if there is a
+@samp{.foo} section in at least one input file.
+
+@node Section Placement
+@subsection Section Placement
+
+@cindex contents of a section
+In a section definition, you can specify the contents of an output
+section by listing particular input files, by listing particular
+input-file sections, or by a combination of the two. You can also place
+arbitrary data in the section, and define symbols relative to the
+beginning of the section.
+
+The @var{contents} of a section definition may include any of the
+following kinds of statement. You can include as many of these as you
+like in a single section definition, separated from one another by
+whitespace.
@table @code
-@item @var{name}
-controls the name of the output section. In formats which only support
-a limited number of sections, such as @code{a.out}, the name must be
-one of the names supported by the format (in the case of a.out,
-@code{.text}, @code{.data} or @code{.bss}). If the output format
-supports any number of sections, but with numbers and not names (in
-the case of IEEE), the name should be supplied as a quoted numeric
-string. A section name may consist of any sequence characters, but
-any name which does not conform to the standard @code{gld} symbol name
-syntax must be quoted. To copy sections 1 through 4 from a Oasys file
-into the @code{.text} section of an @code{a.out} file, and sections 13
-and 14 into the @code{data} section:
-@example
-
- SECTION @{
- .text :@{
- *(``1'' ``2'' ``3'' ``4'')
- @}
-
- .data :@{
- *(``13'' ``14'')
- @}
- @}
-@end example
-
-@item @var{fill expression}
-If present this
-expression sets the fill value. Any unallocated holes in the current output
-section when written to the output file will
-be filled with the two least significant bytes of the value, repeated as
-necessary.
-@page
-@item @var{options}
-the @var{options} parameter is a list of optional arguments specifying
-attributes of the output section, they may be taken from the following
-list:
-@table @bullet{}
-@item @var{addr expression}
-forces the output section to be loaded at a specified address. The
-address is specified as a standard linker expression. The following
-example generates section @var{output} at location
-@code{0x40000000}:
-@example
- SECTIONS @{
- output 0x40000000: @{
- ...
- @}
- @}
-@end example
-Since the built in function @code{ALIGN} references the location
-counter implicitly, a section may be located on a certain boundary by
-using the @code{ALIGN} function in the expression. For example, to
-locate the @code{.data} section on the next 8k boundary after the end
-of the @code{.text} section:
-@example
- SECTIONS @{
- .text @{
- ...
- @}
- .data ALIGN(4K) @{
- ...
- @}
- @}
-@end example
+@kindex @var{filename}
+@cindex input files, section defn
+@cindex files, including in output sections
+@item @var{filename}
+You may simply name a particular input file to be placed in the current
+output section; @emph{all} sections from that file are placed in the
+current section definition. If the file name has already been mentioned
+in another section definition, with an explicit section name list, then
+only those sections which have not yet been allocated are used.
+
+To specify a list of particular files by name:
+@smallexample
+.data : @{ afile.o bfile.o cfile.o @}
+@end smallexample
+@noindent
+The example also illustrates that multiple statements can be included in
+the contents of a section definition, since each file name is a separate
+statement.
+
+@kindex @var{filename}(@var{section})
+@cindex files and sections, section defn
+@item @var{filename}( @var{section} )
+@itemx @var{filename}( @var{section} , @var{section}, @dots{} )
+@itemx @var{filename}( @var{section} @var{section} @dots{} )
+You can name one or more sections from your input files, for
+insertion in the current output section. If you wish to specify a list
+of input-file sections inside the parentheses, you may separate the
+section names by either commas or whitespace.
+
+@cindex input sections to output section
+@kindex *(@var{section})
+@item * (@var{section})
+@itemx * (@var{section}, @var{section}, @dots{})
+@itemx * (@var{section} @var{section} @dots{})
+Instead of explicitly naming particular input files in a link control
+script, you can refer to @emph{all} files from the @code{ld} command
+line: use @samp{*} instead of a particular file name before the
+parenthesized input-file section list.
+
+If you have already explicitly included some files by name, @samp{*}
+refers to all @emph{remaining} files---those whose places in the output
+file have not yet been defined.
+
+For example, to copy sections @code{1} through @code{4} from an Oasys file
+into the @code{.text} section of an @code{a.out} file, and sections @code{13}
+and @code{14} into the @code{.data} section:
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS @{
+ .text :@{
+ *("1" "2" "3" "4")
+ @}
+
+ .data :@{
+ *("13" "14")
+ @}
+@}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@cindex @code{[@var{section}@dots{}]}, not supported
+@samp{[ @var{section} @dots{} ]} used to be accepted as an alternate way
+to specify named sections from all unallocated input files. Because
+some operating systems (VMS) allow brackets in file names, that notation
+is no longer supported.
+
+@cindex uninitialized data
+@cindex commons in output
+@kindex *( COMMON )
+@item @var{filename}@code{( COMMON )}
+@itemx *( COMMON )
+Specify where in your output file to place uninitialized data
+with this notation. @code{*(COMMON)} by itself refers to all
+uninitialized data from all input files (so far as it is not yet
+allocated); @var{filename}@code{(COMMON)} refers to uninitialized data
+from a particular file. Both are special cases of the general
+mechanisms for specifying where to place input-file sections:
+@code{ld} permits you to refer to uninitialized data as if it
+were in an input-file section named @code{COMMON}, regardless of the
+input file's format.
@end table
-@item @var{statements}
-is a list of file names, input sections and assignments. These statements control what is placed into the
-output section.
-The syntax of a single @var{statement} is one of:
-@table @bullet
-
-@item @var{symbol} [ $= | += | -= | *= | /= ] @var{ expression} @code{;}
-
-Global symbols may be created and have their values (addresses)
-altered using the assignment statement. The linker tries to put off
-the evaluation of an assignment until all the terms in the source
-expression are known; for instance the sizes of sections cannot be
-known until after allocation, so assignments dependent upon these are
-not performed until after allocation. Some expressions, such as those
-depending upon the location counter @code{dot}, @samp{.} must be
-evaluated during allocation. If the result of an expression is
-required, but the value is not available, then an error results: eg
-@example
- SECTIONS @{
- text 9+this_isnt_constant:
- @{
- @}
- @}
- testscript:21: Non constant expression for initial address
-@end example
-@item @code{CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS}
-causes the linker to create a symbol for each input file and place it
-into the specified section set with the value of the first byte of
-data written from the input file. For instance, with @code{a.out}
-files it is conventional to have a symbol for each input file.
-@example
- SECTIONS @{
- .text 0x2020 :
- @{
- CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS
- *(.text)
- _etext = ALIGN(0x2000);
- @}
- @}
-@end example
-Supplied with four object files, @code{a.o}, @code{b.o}, @code{c.o},
-and @code{d.o} a run of
-@code{gld} could create a map:
-@example
-From functions like :
-a.c:
- afunction() { }
- int adata=1;
- int abss;
+In any place where you may use a specific file or section name, you may
+also use a wildcard pattern. The linker handles wildcards much as the
+Unix shell does. A @samp{*} character matches any number of characters.
+A @samp{?} character matches any single character. The sequence
+@samp{[@var{chars}]} will match a single instance of any of the
+@var{chars}; the @samp{-} character may be used to specify a range of
+characters, as in @samp{[a-z]} to match any lower case letter. A
+@samp{\} character may be used to quote the following character.
+
+When a file name is matched with a wildcard, the wildcard characters
+will not match a @samp{/} character (used to separate directory names on
+Unix). A pattern consisting of a single @samp{*} character is an
+exception; it will always match any file name. In a section name, the
+wildcard characters will match a @samp{/} character.
+
+Wildcards only match files which are explicitly specified on the command
+line. The linker does not search directories to expand wildcards.
+However, if you specify a simple file name---a name with no wildcard
+characters---in a linker script, and the file name is not also specified
+on the command line, the linker will attempt to open the file as though
+it appeared on the command line.
+
+In the following example, the command script arranges the output file
+into three consecutive sections, named @code{.text}, @code{.data}, and
+@code{.bss}, taking the input for each from the correspondingly named
+sections of all the input files:
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS @{
+ .text : @{ *(.text) @}
+ .data : @{ *(.data) @}
+ .bss : @{ *(.bss) *(COMMON) @}
+@}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+The following example reads all of the sections from file @code{all.o}
+and places them at the start of output section @code{outputa} which
+starts at location @code{0x10000}. All of section @code{.input1} from
+file @code{foo.o} follows immediately, in the same output section. All
+of section @code{.input2} from @code{foo.o} goes into output section
+@code{outputb}, followed by section @code{.input1} from @code{foo1.o}.
+All of the remaining @code{.input1} and @code{.input2} sections from any
+files are written to output section @code{outputc}.
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS @{
+ outputa 0x10000 :
+ @{
+ all.o
+ foo.o (.input1)
+ @}
+ outputb :
+ @{
+ foo.o (.input2)
+ foo1.o (.input1)
+ @}
+ outputc :
+ @{
+ *(.input1)
+ *(.input2)
+ @}
+@}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+This example shows how wildcard patterns might be used to partition
+files. All @code{.text} sections are placed in @code{.text}, and all
+@code{.bss} sections are placed in @code{.bss}. For all files beginning
+with an upper case character, the @code{.data} section is placed into
+@code{.DATA}; for all other files, the @code{.data} section is placed
+into @code{.data}.
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS @{
+ .text : @{ *(.text) @}
+ .DATA : @{ [A-Z]*(.data) @}
+ .data : @{ *(.data) @}
+ .bss : @{ *(.bss) @}
+@}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@node Section Data Expressions
+@subsection Section Data Expressions
+
+@cindex expressions in a section
+The foregoing statements arrange, in your output file, data originating
+from your input files. You can also place data directly in an output
+section from the link command script. Most of these additional
+statements involve expressions (@pxref{Expressions}). Although these
+statements are shown separately here for ease of presentation, no such
+segregation is needed within a section definition in the @code{SECTIONS}
+command; you can intermix them freely with any of the statements we've
+just described.
+@table @code
+@cindex input filename symbols
+@cindex filename symbols
+@kindex CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS
+@item CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS
+Create a symbol for each input file
+in the current section, set to the address of the first byte of
+data written from that input file. For instance, with @code{a.out}
+files it is conventional to have a symbol for each input file. You can
+accomplish this by defining the output @code{.text} section as follows:
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS @{
+ .text 0x2020 :
+ @{
+ CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS
+ *(.text)
+ _etext = ALIGN(0x2000);
+ @}
+ @dots{}
+@}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+If @code{sample.ld} is a file containing this script, and @code{a.o},
+@code{b.o}, @code{c.o}, and @code{d.o} are four input files with
+contents like the following---
+@smallexample
+@group
+/* a.c */
+
+afunction() @{ @}
+int adata=1;
+int abss;
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@noindent
+@samp{ld -M -T sample.ld a.o b.o c.o d.o} would create a map like this,
+containing symbols matching the object file names:
+@smallexample
00000000 A __DYNAMIC
00004020 B _abss
00004000 D _adata
00002038 t b.o
00002050 t c.o
00002068 t d.o
+@end smallexample
+
+@kindex @var{symbol} = @var{expression} ;
+@kindex @var{symbol} @var{f}= @var{expression} ;
+@item @var{symbol} = @var{expression} ;
+@itemx @var{symbol} @var{f}= @var{expression} ;
+@var{symbol} is any symbol name (@pxref{Symbols}). ``@var{f}=''
+refers to any of the operators @code{&= += -= *= /=} which combine
+arithmetic and assignment.
+
+@cindex assignment, in section defn
+When you assign a value to a symbol within a particular section
+definition, the value is relative to the beginning of the section
+(@pxref{Assignment}). If you write
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS @{
+ abs = 14 ;
+ @dots{}
+ .data : @{ @dots{} rel = 14 ; @dots{} @}
+ abs2 = 14 + ADDR(.data);
+ @dots{}
+@}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@c FIXME: Try above example!
+@noindent
+@code{abs} and @code{rel} do not have the same value; @code{rel} has the
+same value as @code{abs2}.
+
+@kindex BYTE(@var{expression})
+@kindex SHORT(@var{expression})
+@kindex LONG(@var{expression})
+@kindex QUAD(@var{expression})
+@cindex direct output
+@item BYTE(@var{expression})
+@itemx SHORT(@var{expression})
+@itemx LONG(@var{expression})
+@itemx QUAD(@var{expression})
+By including one of these four statements in a section definition, you
+can explicitly place one, two, four, or eight bytes (respectively) at
+the current address of that section. @code{QUAD} is only supported when
+using a 64 bit host or target.
+
+@ifclear SingleFormat
+Multiple-byte quantities are represented in whatever byte order is
+appropriate for the output file format (@pxref{BFD}).
+@end ifclear
+
+@kindex FILL(@var{expression})
+@cindex holes, filling
+@cindex unspecified memory
+@item FILL(@var{expression})
+Specify the ``fill pattern'' for the current section. Any otherwise
+unspecified regions of memory within the section (for example, regions
+you skip over by assigning a new value to the location counter @samp{.})
+are filled with the two least significant bytes from the
+@var{expression} argument. A @code{FILL} statement covers memory
+locations @emph{after} the point it occurs in the section definition; by
+including more than one @code{FILL} statement, you can have different
+fill patterns in different parts of an output section.
+@end table
-@end example
+@node Section Options
+@subsection Optional Section Attributes
+@cindex section defn, full syntax
+Here is the full syntax of a section definition, including all the
+optional portions:
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS @{
+@dots{}
+@var{secname} @var{start} BLOCK(@var{align}) (NOLOAD) : AT ( @var{ldadr} )
+ @{ @var{contents} @} >@var{region} :@var{phdr} =@var{fill}
+@dots{}
+@}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@var{secname} and @var{contents} are required. @xref{Section
+Definition}, and @ref{Section Placement}, for details on
+@var{contents}. The remaining elements---@var{start},
+@code{BLOCK(@var{align)}}, @code{(NOLOAD)}, @code{AT ( @var{ldadr} )},
+@code{>@var{region}}, @code{:@var{phdr}}, and @code{=@var{fill}}---are
+all optional.
-@item @var{filename} @code{(} @var{section name list} @code{)}
-This command allocates all the named sections from the input object
-file supplied into the output section at the current point. Sections
-are written in the order they appear in the list so:
-@example
- SECTIONS @{
- .text 0x2020 :
- @{
- a.o(.data)
- b.o(.data)
- *(.text)
- @}
- .data :
- @{
- *(.data)
- @}
- .bss :
- @{
- *(.bss)
- COMMON
- @}
- @}
-@end example
-will produce a map:
-@example
+@table @code
+@cindex start address, section
+@cindex section start
+@cindex section address
+@item @var{start}
+You can force the output section to be loaded at a specified address by
+specifying @var{start} immediately following the section name.
+@var{start} can be represented as any expression. The following
+example generates section @var{output} at location
+@code{0x40000000}:
- insert here
-@end example
-@item @code{* (} @var{section name list} @code{)}
-This command causes all sections from all input files which have not
-yet been assigned output sections to be assigned the current output
-section.
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS @{
+ @dots{}
+ output 0x40000000: @{
+ @dots{}
+ @}
+ @dots{}
+@}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@kindex BLOCK(@var{align})
+@cindex section alignment
+@cindex aligning sections
+@item BLOCK(@var{align})
+You can include @code{BLOCK()} specification to advance
+the location counter @code{.} prior to the beginning of the section, so
+that the section will begin at the specified alignment. @var{align} is
+an expression.
+
+@kindex NOLOAD
+@cindex prevent unnecessary loading
+@cindex loading, preventing
+@item (NOLOAD)
+Use @samp{(NOLOAD)} to prevent a section from being loaded into memory
+each time it is accessed. For example, in the script sample below, the
+@code{ROM} segment is addressed at memory location @samp{0} and does not
+need to be loaded into each object file:
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS @{
+ ROM 0 (NOLOAD) : @{ @dots{} @}
+ @dots{}
+@}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@kindex AT ( @var{ldadr} )
+@cindex specify load address
+@cindex load address, specifying
+@item AT ( @var{ldadr} )
+The expression @var{ldadr} that follows the @code{AT} keyword specifies
+the load address of the section. The default (if you do not use the
+@code{AT} keyword) is to make the load address the same as the
+relocation address. This feature is designed to make it easy to build a
+ROM image. For example, this @code{SECTIONS} definition creates two
+output sections: one called @samp{.text}, which starts at @code{0x1000},
+and one called @samp{.mdata}, which is loaded at the end of the
+@samp{.text} section even though its relocation address is
+@code{0x2000}. The symbol @code{_data} is defined with the value
+@code{0x2000}:
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+SECTIONS
+ @{
+ .text 0x1000 : @{ *(.text) _etext = . ; @}
+ .mdata 0x2000 :
+ AT ( ADDR(.text) + SIZEOF ( .text ) )
+ @{ _data = . ; *(.data); _edata = . ; @}
+ .bss 0x3000 :
+ @{ _bstart = . ; *(.bss) *(COMMON) ; _bend = . ;@}
+@}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+The run-time initialization code (for C programs, usually @code{crt0})
+for use with a ROM generated this way has to include something like
+the following, to copy the initialized data from the ROM image to its runtime
+address:
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+char *src = _etext;
+char *dst = _data;
+
+/* ROM has data at end of text; copy it. */
+while (dst < _edata) @{
+ *dst++ = *src++;
+@}
+
+/* Zero bss */
+for (dst = _bstart; dst< _bend; dst++)
+ *dst = 0;
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@kindex >@var{region}
+@cindex section, assigning to memory region
+@cindex memory regions and sections
+@item >@var{region}
+Assign this section to a previously defined region of memory.
+@xref{MEMORY}.
+
+@kindex :@var{phdr}
+@cindex section, assigning to program header
+@cindex program headers and sections
+@item :@var{phdr}
+Assign this section to a segment described by a program header.
+@xref{PHDRS}. If a section is assigned to one or more segments, then
+all subsequent allocated sections will be assigned to those segments as
+well, unless they use an explicitly @code{:@var{phdr}} modifier. To
+prevent a section from being assigned to a segment when it would
+normally default to one, use @code{:NONE}.
+
+@kindex =@var{fill}
+@cindex section fill pattern
+@cindex fill pattern, entire section
+@item =@var{fill}
+Including @code{=@var{fill}} in a section definition specifies the
+initial fill value for that section. You may use any expression to
+specify @var{fill}. Any unallocated holes in the current output section
+when written to the output file will be filled with the two least
+significant bytes of the value, repeated as necessary. You can also
+change the fill value with a @code{FILL} statement in the @var{contents}
+of a section definition.
-@item @var{filename} @code{[COMMON]}
-This allocates all the common symbols from the specified file and places
-them into the current output section.
+@end table
-@item @code{* [COMMON]}
-This allocates all the common symbols from the files which have not
-yet had their common symbols allocated and places them into the current
-output section.
+@node Overlays
+@subsection Overlays
+@kindex OVERLAY
+@cindex overlays
+
+The @code{OVERLAY} command provides an easy way to describe sections
+which are to be loaded as part of a single memory image but are to be
+run at the same memory address. At run time, some sort of overlay
+manager will copy the overlaid sections in and out of the runtime memory
+address as required, perhaps by simply manipulating addressing bits.
+This approach can be useful, for example, when a certain region of
+memory is faster than another.
+
+The @code{OVERLAY} command is used within a @code{SECTIONS} command. It
+appears as follows:
+@smallexample
+@group
+ OVERLAY @var{start} : [ NOCROSSREFS ] AT ( @var{ldaddr} )
+ @{
+ @var{secname1} @{ @var{contents} @} :@var{phdr} =@var{fill}
+ @var{secname2} @{ @var{contents} @} :@var{phdr} =@var{fill}
+ @dots{}
+ @} >@var{region} :@var{phdr} =@var{fill}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+Everything is optional except @code{OVERLAY} (a keyword), and each
+section must have a name (@var{secname1} and @var{secname2} above). The
+section definitions within the @code{OVERLAY} construct are identical to
+those within the general @code{SECTIONS} contruct (@pxref{SECTIONS}),
+except that no addresses and no memory regions may be defined for
+sections within an @code{OVERLAY}.
+
+The sections are all defined with the same starting address. The load
+addresses of the sections are arranged such that they are consecutive in
+memory starting at the load address used for the @code{OVERLAY} as a
+whole (as with normal section definitions, the load address is optional,
+and defaults to the start address; the start address is also optional,
+and defaults to @code{.}).
+
+If the @code{NOCROSSREFS} keyword is used, and there any references
+among the sections, the linker will report an error. Since the sections
+all run at the same address, it normally does not make sense for one
+section to refer directly to another. @xref{Option Commands,
+NOCROSSREFS}.
+
+For each section within the @code{OVERLAY}, the linker automatically
+defines two symbols. The symbol @code{__load_start_@var{secname}} is
+defined as the starting load address of the section. The symbol
+@code{__load_stop_@var{secname}} is defined as the final load address of
+the section. Any characters within @var{secname} which are not legal
+within C identifiers are removed. C (or assembler) code may use these
+symbols to move the overlaid sections around as necessary.
+
+At the end of the overlay, the value of @code{.} is set to the start
+address of the overlay plus the size of the largest section.
+
+Here is an example. Remember that this would appear inside a
+@code{SECTIONS} construct.
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+ OVERLAY 0x1000 : AT (0x4000)
+ @{
+ .text0 @{ o1/*.o(.text) @}
+ .text1 @{ o2/*.o(.text) @}
+ @}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+This will define both @code{.text0} and @code{.text1} to start at
+address 0x1000. @code{.text0} will be loaded at address 0x4000, and
+@code{.text1} will be loaded immediately after @code{.text0}. The
+following symbols will be defined: @code{__load_start_text0},
+@code{__load_stop_text0}, @code{__load_start_text1},
+@code{__load_stop_text1}.
+
+C code to copy overlay @code{.text1} into the overlay area might look
+like the following.
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+ extern char __load_start_text1, __load_stop_text1;
+ memcpy ((char *) 0x1000, &__load_start_text1,
+ &__load_stop_text1 - &__load_start_text1);
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+Note that the @code{OVERLAY} command is just syntactic sugar, since
+everything it does can be done using the more basic commands. The above
+example could have been written identically as follows.
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+ .text0 0x1000 : AT (0x4000) @{ o1/*.o(.text) @}
+ __load_start_text0 = LOADADDR (.text0);
+ __load_stop_text0 = LOADADDR (.text0) + SIZEOF (.text0);
+ .text1 0x1000 : AT (0x4000 + SIZEOF (.text0)) @{ o2/*.o(.text) @}
+ __load_start_text1 = LOADADDR (.text1);
+ __load_stop_text1 = LOADADDR (.text1) + SIZEOF (.text1);
+ . = 0x1000 + MAX (SIZEOF (.text0), SIZEOF (.text1));
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@node PHDRS
+@section ELF Program Headers
+@kindex PHDRS
+@cindex program headers
+@cindex ELF program headers
+
+The ELF object file format uses @dfn{program headers}, which are read by
+the system loader and describe how the program should be loaded into
+memory. These program headers must be set correctly in order to run the
+program on a native ELF system. The linker will create reasonable
+program headers by default. However, in some cases, it is desirable to
+specify the program headers more precisely; the @code{PHDRS} command may
+be used for this purpose. When the @code{PHDRS} command is used, the
+linker will not generate any program headers itself.
+
+The @code{PHDRS} command is only meaningful when generating an ELF
+output file. It is ignored in other cases. This manual does not
+describe the details of how the system loader interprets program
+headers; for more information, see the ELF ABI. The program headers of
+an ELF file may be displayed using the @samp{-p} option of the
+@code{objdump} command.
+
+This is the syntax of the @code{PHDRS} command. The words @code{PHDRS},
+@code{FILEHDR}, @code{AT}, and @code{FLAGS} are keywords.
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+PHDRS
+@{
+ @var{name} @var{type} [ FILEHDR ] [ PHDRS ] [ AT ( @var{address} ) ]
+ [ FLAGS ( @var{flags} ) ] ;
+@}
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+The @var{name} is used only for reference in the @code{SECTIONS} command
+of the linker script. It does not get put into the output file.
+
+Certain program header types describe segments of memory which are
+loaded from the file by the system loader. In the linker script, the
+contents of these segments are specified by directing allocated output
+sections to be placed in the segment. To do this, the command
+describing the output section in the @code{SECTIONS} command should use
+@samp{:@var{name}}, where @var{name} is the name of the program header
+as it appears in the @code{PHDRS} command. @xref{Section Options}.
+
+It is normal for certain sections to appear in more than one segment.
+This merely implies that one segment of memory contains another. This
+is specified by repeating @samp{:@var{name}}, using it once for each
+program header in which the section is to appear.
+
+If a section is placed in one or more segments using @samp{:@var{name}},
+then all subsequent allocated sections which do not specify
+@samp{:@var{name}} are placed in the same segments. This is for
+convenience, since generally a whole set of contiguous sections will be
+placed in a single segment. To prevent a section from being assigned to
+a segment when it would normally default to one, use @code{:NONE}.
+
+The @code{FILEHDR} and @code{PHDRS} keywords which may appear after the
+program header type also indicate contents of the segment of memory.
+The @code{FILEHDR} keyword means that the segment should include the ELF
+file header. The @code{PHDRS} keyword means that the segment should
+include the ELF program headers themselves.
+
+The @var{type} may be one of the following. The numbers indicate the
+value of the keyword.
+
+@table @asis
+@item @code{PT_NULL} (0)
+Indicates an unused program header.
+
+@item @code{PT_LOAD} (1)
+Indicates that this program header describes a segment to be loaded from
+the file.
+
+@item @code{PT_DYNAMIC} (2)
+Indicates a segment where dynamic linking information can be found.
+
+@item @code{PT_INTERP} (3)
+Indicates a segment where the name of the program interpreter may be
+found.
+
+@item @code{PT_NOTE} (4)
+Indicates a segment holding note information.
+
+@item @code{PT_SHLIB} (5)
+A reserved program header type, defined but not specified by the ELF
+ABI.
+
+@item @code{PT_PHDR} (6)
+Indicates a segment where the program headers may be found.
+
+@item @var{expression}
+An expression giving the numeric type of the program header. This may
+be used for types not defined above.
+@end table
-@item @var{filename}
-A filename alone within a @code{SECTIONS} statement will cause all the
-input sections from the file to be placed into the current output
-section at the current location. If the file name has been mentioned
-before with a section name list then only those
-sections which have not yet been allocated are noted.
-
-The following example reads all of the sections from file all.o and
-places them at the start of output section @code{outputa} which starts
-at location @code{0x10000}. All of the data from section @code{.input1} from
-file foo.o is placed next into the same output section. All of
-section @code{.input2} is read from foo.o and placed into output
-section @code{outputb}. Next all of section @code{.input1} is read
-from foo1.o. All of the remaining @code{.input1} and @code{.input2}
-sections from any files are written to output section @code{output3}.
+It is possible to specify that a segment should be loaded at a
+particular address in memory. This is done using an @code{AT}
+expression. This is identical to the @code{AT} command used in the
+@code{SECTIONS} command (@pxref{Section Options}). Using the @code{AT}
+command for a program header overrides any information in the
+@code{SECTIONS} command.
+
+Normally the segment flags are set based on the sections. The
+@code{FLAGS} keyword may be used to explicitly specify the segment
+flags. The value of @var{flags} must be an integer. It is used to
+set the @code{p_flags} field of the program header.
+
+Here is an example of the use of @code{PHDRS}. This shows a typical set
+of program headers used on a native ELF system.
@example
- SECTIONS
- @{
- outputa 0x10000 :
- @{
- all.o
- foo.o (.input1)
- @}
- outputb :
- @{
- foo.o (.input2)
- foo1.o (.input1)
- @}
- outputc :
- @{
- *(.input1)
- *(.input2)
- @}
- @}
-
-@end example
-@end table
-@end table
-@section Using the Location Counter
-The special linker variable @code{dot}, @samp{.} always contains the
-current output location counter. Since the @code{dot} always refers to
-a location in an output section, it must always appear in an
-expression within a @code{SECTIONS} directive. The @code{dot} symbol
-may appear anywhere that an ordinary symbol may appear in an
-expression, but its assignments have a side effect. Assigning a value
-to the @code{dot} symbol will cause the location counter to be moved.
-This may be used to create holes in the output section. The location
-counter may never be moved backwards.
-@example
- SECTIONS
- @{
- output :
- @{
- file1(.text)
- . = . + 1000;
- file2(.text)
- . += 1000;
- file3(.text)
- . -= 32;
- file4(.text)
- @} = 0x1234;
- @}
+@group
+PHDRS
+@{
+ headers PT_PHDR PHDRS ;
+ interp PT_INTERP ;
+ text PT_LOAD FILEHDR PHDRS ;
+ data PT_LOAD ;
+ dynamic PT_DYNAMIC ;
+@}
+
+SECTIONS
+@{
+ . = SIZEOF_HEADERS;
+ .interp : @{ *(.interp) @} :text :interp
+ .text : @{ *(.text) @} :text
+ .rodata : @{ *(.rodata) @} /* defaults to :text */
+ @dots{}
+ . = . + 0x1000; /* move to a new page in memory */
+ .data : @{ *(.data) @} :data
+ .dynamic : @{ *(.dynamic) @} :data :dynamic
+ @dots{}
+@}
+@end group
@end example
-In the previous example, @code{file1} is located at the beginning of
-the output section, then there is a 1000 byte gap, filled with 0x1234.
-Then @code{file2} appears, also with a 1000 byte gap following before
-@code{file3} is loaded. Then the first 32 bytes of @code{file4} are
-placed over the last 32 bytes of @code{file3}.
-@section Command Language Syntax
+
+@node Entry Point
@section The Entry Point
-The linker chooses the first executable instruction in an output file from a list
-of possibilities, in order:
+@kindex ENTRY(@var{symbol})
+@cindex start of execution
+@cindex first instruction
+The linker command language includes a command specifically for
+defining the first executable instruction in an output file (its
+@dfn{entry point}). Its argument is a symbol name:
+@smallexample
+ENTRY(@var{symbol})
+@end smallexample
+
+Like symbol assignments, the @code{ENTRY} command may be placed either
+as an independent command in the command file, or among the section
+definitions within the @code{SECTIONS} command---whatever makes the most
+sense for your layout.
+
+@cindex entry point, defaults
+@code{ENTRY} is only one of several ways of choosing the entry point.
+You may indicate it in any of the following ways (shown in descending
+order of priority: methods higher in the list override methods lower down).
@itemize @bullet
@item
-The value of the symbol provided to the command line with the @code{-e} option, when
-present.
+the @samp{-e} @var{entry} command-line option;
@item
-The value of the symbol provided in the @code{ENTRY} directive,
-if present.
+the @code{ENTRY(@var{symbol})} command in a linker control script;
@item
-The value of the symbol @code{start}, if present.
+the value of the symbol @code{start}, if present;
@item
-The value of the symbol @code{_main}, if present.
+the address of the first byte of the @code{.text} section, if present;
@item
-The address of the first byte of the @code{.text} section, if present.
-@item
-The value 0.
+The address @code{0}.
@end itemize
-If the symbol @code{start} is not defined within the set of input
-files to a link, it may be generated by a simple assignment
-expression. eg.
-@example
- start = 0x2020;
-@end example
-@section Section Attributes
-@section Allocation of Sections into Memory
-@section Defining Symbols
-@chapter Examples of operation
-The simplest case is linking standard Unix object files on a standard
-Unix system supported by the linker. To link a file hello.o:
-@example
-$ gld -o output /lib/crt0.o hello.o -lc
-@end example
-This tells gld to produce a file called @code{output} after linking
-the file @code{/lib/crt0.o} with @code{hello.o} and the library
-@code{libc.a} which will come from the standard search directories.
-@chapter Partial Linking
-Specifying the @code{-r} on the command line causes @code{gld} to
-perform a partial link.
+For example, you can use these rules to generate an entry point with an
+assignment statement: if no symbol @code{start} is defined within your
+input files, you can simply define it, assigning it an appropriate
+value---
-@chapter BFD
+@smallexample
+start = 0x2020;
+@end smallexample
-The linker accesses object and archive files using the @code{bfd}
-libraries. These libraries allow the linker to use the same routines
-to operate on object files whatever the object file format.
+@noindent
+The example shows an absolute address, but you can use any expression.
+For example, if your input object files use some other symbol-name
+convention for the entry point, you can just assign the value of
+whatever symbol contains the start address to @code{start}:
-A different object file format can be supported simply by creating a
-new @code{bfd} back end and adding it to the library.
+@smallexample
+start = other_symbol ;
+@end smallexample
-Formats currently supported:
-@itemize @bullet
-@item
-Sun3 68k a.out
-@item
-IEEE-695 68k Object Module Format
-@item
-Oasys 68k Binary Relocatable Object File Format
-@item
-Sun4 sparc a.out
-@item
-88k bcs coff
-@item
-i960 coff little endian
-@item
-i960 coff big endian
-@item
-i960 b.out little endian
-@item
-i960 b.out big endian
-@end itemize
+@node Option Commands
+@section Option Commands
+The command language includes a number of other commands that you can
+use for specialized purposes. They are similar in purpose to
+command-line options.
+
+@table @code
+@kindex CONSTRUCTORS
+@cindex C++ constructors, arranging in link
+@cindex constructors, arranging in link
+@item CONSTRUCTORS
+When linking using the @code{a.out} object file format, the linker uses
+an unusual set construct to support C++ global constructors and
+destructors. When linking object file formats which do not support
+arbitrary sections, such as @code{ECOFF} and @code{XCOFF}, the linker
+will automatically recognize C++ global constructors and destructors by
+name. For these object file formats, the @code{CONSTRUCTORS} command
+tells the linker where this information should be placed. The
+@code{CONSTRUCTORS} command is ignored for other object file formats.
+
+The symbol @w{@code{__CTOR_LIST__}} marks the start of the global
+constructors, and the symbol @w{@code{__DTOR_LIST}} marks the end. The
+first word in the list is the number of entries, followed by the address
+of each constructor or destructor, followed by a zero word. The
+compiler must arrange to actually run the code. For these object file
+formats @sc{gnu} C++ calls constructors from a subroutine @code{__main};
+a call to @code{__main} is automatically inserted into the startup code
+for @code{main}. @sc{gnu} C++ runs destructors either by using
+@code{atexit}, or directly from the function @code{exit}.
+
+For object file formats such as @code{COFF} or @code{ELF} which support
+multiple sections, @sc{gnu} C++ will normally arrange to put the
+addresses of global constructors and destructors into the @code{.ctors}
+and @code{.dtors} sections. Placing the following sequence into your
+linker script will build the sort of table which the @sc{gnu} C++
+runtime code expects to see.
+
+@smallexample
+ __CTOR_LIST__ = .;
+ LONG((__CTOR_END__ - __CTOR_LIST__) / 4 - 2)
+ *(.ctors)
+ LONG(0)
+ __CTOR_END__ = .;
+ __DTOR_LIST__ = .;
+ LONG((__DTOR_END__ - __DTOR_LIST__) / 4 - 2)
+ *(.dtors)
+ LONG(0)
+ __DTOR_END__ = .;
+@end smallexample
+
+Normally the compiler and linker will handle these issues automatically,
+and you will not need to concern yourself with them. However, you may
+need to consider this if you are using C++ and writing your own linker
+scripts.
+
+@need 1000
+@kindex FLOAT
+@kindex NOFLOAT
+@item FLOAT
+@itemx NOFLOAT
+These keywords were used in some older linkers to request a particular
+math subroutine library. @code{ld} doesn't use the keywords, assuming
+instead that any necessary subroutines are in libraries specified using
+the general mechanisms for linking to archives; but to permit the use of
+scripts that were written for the older linkers, the keywords
+@code{FLOAT} and @code{NOFLOAT} are accepted and ignored.
+
+@kindex FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION
+@cindex common allocation
+@item FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION
+This command has the same effect as the @samp{-d} command-line option:
+to make @code{ld} assign space to common symbols even if a relocatable
+output file is specified (@samp{-r}).
+
+@kindex INPUT ( @var{files} )
+@cindex binary input files
+@item INPUT ( @var{file}, @var{file}, @dots{} )
+@itemx INPUT ( @var{file} @var{file} @dots{} )
+Use this command to include binary input files in the link, without
+including them in a particular section definition.
+Specify the full name for each @var{file}, including @samp{.a} if
+required.
+
+@code{ld} searches for each @var{file} through the archive-library
+search path, just as for files you specify on the command line.
+See the description of @samp{-L} in @ref{Options,,Command Line
+Options}.
+
+If you use @samp{-l@var{file}}, @code{ld} will transform the name to
+@code{lib@var{file}.a} as with the command line argument @samp{-l}.
+
+@kindex GROUP ( @var{files} )
+@cindex grouping input files
+@item GROUP ( @var{file}, @var{file}, @dots{} )
+@itemx GROUP ( @var{file} @var{file} @dots{} )
+This command is like @code{INPUT}, except that the named files should
+all be archives, and they are searched repeatedly until no new undefined
+references are created. See the description of @samp{-(} in
+@ref{Options,,Command Line Options}.
+
+@ignore
+@kindex MAP ( @var{name} )
+@item MAP ( @var{name} )
+@c MAP(...) appears to look for an F in the arg, ignoring all other
+@c chars; if it finds one, it sets "map_option_f" to true. But nothing
+@c checks map_option_f. Apparently a stub for the future...
+@end ignore
+
+@kindex OUTPUT ( @var{filename} )
+@cindex naming the output file
+@item OUTPUT ( @var{filename} )
+Use this command to name the link output file @var{filename}. The
+effect of @code{OUTPUT(@var{filename})} is identical to the effect of
+@w{@samp{-o @var{filename}}}, which overrides it. You can use this
+command to supply a default output-file name other than @code{a.out}.
+
+@ifclear SingleFormat
+@kindex OUTPUT_ARCH ( @var{bfdname} )
+@cindex machine architecture, output
+@item OUTPUT_ARCH ( @var{bfdname} )
+Specify a particular output machine architecture, with one of the names
+used by the BFD back-end routines (@pxref{BFD}). This command is often
+unnecessary; the architecture is most often set implicitly by either the
+system BFD configuration or as a side effect of the @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT}
+command.
+
+@kindex OUTPUT_FORMAT ( @var{bfdname} )
+@cindex format, output file
+@item OUTPUT_FORMAT ( @var{bfdname} )
+When @code{ld} is configured to support multiple object code formats,
+you can use this command to specify a particular output format.
+@var{bfdname} is one of the names used by the BFD back-end routines
+(@pxref{BFD}). The effect is identical to the effect of the
+@samp{--oformat} command-line option. This selection affects only the
+output file; the related command @code{TARGET} affects primarily input
+files.
+@end ifclear
+
+@kindex SEARCH_DIR ( @var{path} )
+@cindex path for libraries
+@cindex search path, libraries
+@item SEARCH_DIR ( @var{path} )
+Add @var{path} to the list of paths where @code{ld} looks for
+archive libraries. @code{SEARCH_DIR(@var{path})} has the same
+effect as @samp{-L@var{path}} on the command line.
+
+@kindex STARTUP ( @var{filename} )
+@cindex first input file
+@item STARTUP ( @var{filename} )
+Ensure that @var{filename} is the first input file used in the link
+process.
+
+@ifclear SingleFormat
+@cindex input file format
+@kindex TARGET ( @var{format} )
+@item TARGET ( @var{format} )
+When @code{ld} is configured to support multiple object code formats,
+you can use this command to change the input-file object code format
+(like the command-line option @samp{-b} or its synonym @samp{--format}).
+The argument @var{format} is one of the strings used by BFD to name
+binary formats. If @code{TARGET} is specified but @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT}
+is not, the last @code{TARGET} argument is also used as the default
+format for the @code{ld} output file. @xref{BFD}.
+
+@kindex GNUTARGET
+If you don't use the @code{TARGET} command, @code{ld} uses the value of
+the environment variable @code{GNUTARGET}, if available, to select the
+output file format. If that variable is also absent, @code{ld} uses
+the default format configured for your machine in the BFD libraries.
+@end ifclear
+
+@cindex cross references
+@kindex NOCROSSREFS ( @var{sections} )
+@item NOCROSSREFS ( @var{section} @var{section} @dots{} )
+This command may be used to tell @code{ld} to issue an error about any
+references among certain sections.
+
+In certain types of programs, particularly on embedded systems, when one
+section is loaded into memory, another section will not be. Any direct
+references between the two sections would be errors. For example, it
+would be an error if code in one section called a function defined in
+the other section.
+
+The @code{NOCROSSREFS} command takes a list of section names. If
+@code{ld} detects any cross references between the sections, it reports
+an error and returns a non-zero exit status. The @code{NOCROSSREFS}
+command uses output section names, defined in the @code{SECTIONS}
+command. It does not use the names of input sections.
+@end table
+
+@ifset GENERIC
+@node Machine Dependent
+@chapter Machine Dependent Features
+
+@cindex machine dependencies
+@code{ld} has additional features on some platforms; the following
+sections describe them. Machines where @code{ld} has no additional
+functionality are not listed.
+
+@menu
+* H8/300:: @code{ld} and the H8/300
+* i960:: @code{ld} and the Intel 960 family
+@end menu
+@end ifset
+
+@c FIXME! This could use @raisesections/@lowersections, but there seems to be a conflict
+@c between those and node-defaulting.
+@ifset H8300
+@ifclear GENERIC
+@raisesections
+@end ifclear
+@node H8/300
+@section @code{ld} and the H8/300
+
+@cindex H8/300 support
+For the H8/300, @code{ld} can perform these global optimizations when
+you specify the @samp{--relax} command-line option.
+
+@table @emph
+@cindex relaxing on H8/300
+@item relaxing address modes
+@code{ld} finds all @code{jsr} and @code{jmp} instructions whose
+targets are within eight bits, and turns them into eight-bit
+program-counter relative @code{bsr} and @code{bra} instructions,
+respectively.
+
+@cindex synthesizing on H8/300
+@item synthesizing instructions
+@c FIXME: specifically mov.b, or any mov instructions really?
+@code{ld} finds all @code{mov.b} instructions which use the
+sixteen-bit absolute address form, but refer to the top
+page of memory, and changes them to use the eight-bit address form.
+(That is: the linker turns @samp{mov.b @code{@@}@var{aa}:16} into
+@samp{mov.b @code{@@}@var{aa}:8} whenever the address @var{aa} is in the
+top page of memory).
+@end table
+@ifclear GENERIC
+@lowersections
+@end ifclear
+@end ifset
+
+@ifclear GENERIC
+@ifset Hitachi
+@c This stuff is pointless to say unless you're especially concerned
+@c with Hitachi chips; don't enable it for generic case, please.
+@node Hitachi
+@chapter @code{ld} and other Hitachi chips
+
+@code{ld} also supports the H8/300H, the H8/500, and the Hitachi SH. No
+special features, commands, or command-line options are required for
+these chips.
+@end ifset
+@end ifclear
+
+@ifset I960
+@ifclear GENERIC
+@raisesections
+@end ifclear
+@node i960
+@section @code{ld} and the Intel 960 family
+
+@cindex i960 support
+
+You can use the @samp{-A@var{architecture}} command line option to
+specify one of the two-letter names identifying members of the 960
+family; the option specifies the desired output target, and warns of any
+incompatible instructions in the input files. It also modifies the
+linker's search strategy for archive libraries, to support the use of
+libraries specific to each particular architecture, by including in the
+search loop names suffixed with the string identifying the architecture.
+
+For example, if your @code{ld} command line included @w{@samp{-ACA}} as
+well as @w{@samp{-ltry}}, the linker would look (in its built-in search
+paths, and in any paths you specify with @samp{-L}) for a library with
+the names
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+try
+libtry.a
+tryca
+libtryca.a
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+@noindent
+The first two possibilities would be considered in any event; the last
+two are due to the use of @w{@samp{-ACA}}.
+
+You can meaningfully use @samp{-A} more than once on a command line, since
+the 960 architecture family allows combination of target architectures; each
+use will add another pair of name variants to search for when @w{@samp{-l}}
+specifies a library.
+
+@cindex @code{--relax} on i960
+@cindex relaxing on i960
+@code{ld} supports the @samp{--relax} option for the i960 family. If
+you specify @samp{--relax}, @code{ld} finds all @code{balx} and
+@code{calx} instructions whose targets are within 24 bits, and turns
+them into 24-bit program-counter relative @code{bal} and @code{cal}
+instructions, respectively. @code{ld} also turns @code{cal}
+instructions into @code{bal} instructions when it determines that the
+target subroutine is a leaf routine (that is, the target subroutine does
+not itself call any subroutines).
+
+@ifclear GENERIC
+@lowersections
+@end ifclear
+@end ifset
+
+@ifclear SingleFormat
+@node BFD
+@chapter BFD
-As with most implementations, @code{bfd} is a compromise between
+@cindex back end
+@cindex object file management
+@cindex object formats available
+@kindex objdump -i
+The linker accesses object and archive files using the BFD libraries.
+These libraries allow the linker to use the same routines to operate on
+object files whatever the object file format. A different object file
+format can be supported simply by creating a new BFD back end and adding
+it to the library. To conserve runtime memory, however, the linker and
+associated tools are usually configured to support only a subset of the
+object file formats available. You can use @code{objdump -i}
+(@pxref{objdump,,objdump,binutils.info,The GNU Binary Utilities}) to
+list all the formats available for your configuration.
+
+@cindex BFD requirements
+@cindex requirements for BFD
+As with most implementations, BFD is a compromise between
several conflicting requirements. The major factor influencing
-@code{bfd} design was efficiency, any time used converting between
-formats is time which would not have been spent had @code{bfd} not
+BFD design was efficiency: any time used converting between
+formats is time which would not have been spent had BFD not
been involved. This is partly offset by abstraction payback; since
-@code{bfd} simplifies applications and back ends, more time and care
+BFD simplifies applications and back ends, more time and care
may be spent optimizing algorithms for a greater speed.
-One minor artifact of the @code{bfd} solution which the
-user should be aware of is information lossage.
-There are two places where useful information can be lost using the
-@code{bfd} mechanism; during conversion and during output.
-
-@section How it works
-When an object file is opened, @code{bfd}
-tries to automatically determine the format of the input object file, a
-descriptor is built in memory with pointers to routines to access
-elements of the object file's data structures.
-
-As different information from the the object files is required
-@code{bfd} reads from different sections of the file and processes
-them. For example a very common operation for the linker is processing
-symbol tables. Each @code{bfd} back end provides a routine for
-converting between the object file's representation of symbols and an
-internal canonical format. When the linker asks for the symbol table
-of an object file, it calls through the memory pointer to the relevant
-@code{bfd} back end routine which reads and converts the table into
-the canonical form. Linker then operates upon the common form. When
-the link is finished and the linker writes the symbol table of the
-output file, another @code{bfd} back end routine is called which takes
-the newly created symbol table and converts it into the output format.
-
-@section Information Leaks
-@table @bullet{}
-@item Information lost during output.
-The output formats supported by @code{bfd} do not provide identical
-facilities, and information which may be described in one form
-has no where to go in another format. One example of this would be
-alignment information in @code{b.out}. There is no where in an @code{a.out}
-format file to store alignment information on the contained data, so when
-a file is linked from @code{b.out} and an @code{a.out} image is produced,
-alignment information is lost. (Note that in this case the linker has the
-alignment information internally, so the link is performed correctly).
-
-Another example is COFF section names. COFF files may contain an
-unlimited number of sections, each one with a textual section name. If
-the target of the link is a format which does not have many sections
-(eg @code{a.out}) or has sections without names (eg the Oasys format)
-the link cannot be done simply. It is possible to circumvent this
-problem by describing the desired input section to output section
-mapping with the command language.
-
-@item Information lost during canonicalization.
-The @code{bfd}
-internal canonical form of the external formats is not exhaustive,
-there are structures in input formats for which there is no direct
-representation internally. This means that the @code{bfd} back ends
-cannot maintain all the data richness through the transformation
-between external to internal and back to external formats.
-
-This limitation is only a problem when using the linker to read one
-format and write another. Each @code{bfd} back end is responsible for
-maintaining as much data as possible, and the internal @code{bfd}
-canonical form has structures which are opaque to the @code{bfd} core,
-and exported only to the back ends. When a file is read in one format,
-the canonical form is generated for @code{bfd} and the linker. At the
-same time, the back end saves away any information which may otherwise
-be lost. If the data is then written back to the same back end, the
-back end routine will be able to use the canonical form provided by
-the @code{bfd} core as well as the information it prepared earlier.
-Since there is a great deal of commonality between back ends, this
-mechanism is very useful. There is no information lost when linking
-big endian COFF to little endian COFF, or from a.out to b.out. When a
-mixture of formats are linked, the information is only lost from the
-files with a different format to the destination.
-@end table
-@section Mechanism
-The smallest amount of information is preserved when there
-is a small union between the information provided by the source
-format, that stored by the canonical format and the information needed
-by the destination format. A brief description of the canonical form
-will help the user appreciate what is possible to be maintained
-between conversions.
-
-@table @bullet
-@item file level Information on target machine
-architecture, particular implementation and format type are stored on
-a per file basis. Other information includes a demand pageable bit and
-a write protected bit. Note that information like Unix magic numbers
-is not stored here, only the magic numbers meaning, so a ZMAGIC file
-would have both the demand pageable bit and the write protected text
-bit set.
-
-The byte order of the target is stored on a per file basis, so that
-both big and little endian object files may be linked together at the
-same time.
-@item section level
-Each section in the input file contains the name of the section, the
-original address in the object file, various flags, size and alignment
-information and pointers into other @code{bfd} data structures.
-@item symbol level
-Each symbol contains a pointer to the object file which originally
-defined it, its name, value and various flags bits. When a symbol
-table is read in all symbols are relocated to make them relative to
-the base of the section they were defined in, so each symbol points to
-the containing section. Each symbol also has a varying amount of
-hidden data to contain private data for the back end. Since the symbol
-points to the original file, the symbol private data format is
-accessible. Operations may be done to a list of symbols of wildly
-different formats without problems.
-
-Normal global and simple local symbols are maintained on output, so an
-output file, no matter the format will retain symbols pointing to
-functions, globals, statics and commons. Some symbol information is
-not worth retaining; in @code{a.out} type information is stored in the
-symbol table as long symbol names. This information would be useless
-to most coff debuggers and may be thrown away with appropriate command
-line switches. (Note that gdb does support stabs in coff).
-
-There is one word of type information within the symbol, so if the
-format supports symbol type information within symbols - (eg COFF,
-IEEE, Oasys) and the type is simple enough to fit within one word
-(nearly everything but aggregates) the information will be preserved.
-
-@item relocation level
-Each canonical relocation record contains a pointer to the symbol to
-relocate to, the offset of the data to relocate, the section the data
-is in and a pointer to a relocation type descriptor. Relocation is
-performed effectively by message passing through the relocation type
-descriptor and symbol pointer. It allows relocations to be performed
-on output data using a relocation method only available in one of the
-input formats. For instance, Oasys provides a byte relocation format.
-A relocation record requesting this relocation type would point
-indirectly to a routine to perform this, so the relocation may be
-performed on a byte being written to a COFF file, even though 68k COFF
-has no such relocation type.
-
-@item line numbers
-Line numbers have to be relocated along with the symbol information.
-Each symbol with an associated list of line number records points to
-the first record of the list. The head of a line number list consists
-of a pointer to the symbol, which allows divination of the address of
-the function who's line number is being described. The rest of the
-list is tuples offsets into the section and line indexes. Any format
-which can simply derive this information can pass it without lossage
-between formats (COFF, IEEE and Oasys).
+One minor artifact of the BFD solution which you should bear in
+mind is the potential for information loss. There are two places where
+useful information can be lost using the BFD mechanism: during
+conversion and during output. @xref{BFD information loss}.
+
+@menu
+* BFD outline:: How it works: an outline of BFD
+@end menu
+
+@node BFD outline
+@section How it works: an outline of BFD
+@cindex opening object files
+@include bfdsumm.texi
+@end ifclear
+
+@node Reporting Bugs
+@chapter Reporting Bugs
+@cindex bugs in @code{ld}
+@cindex reporting bugs in @code{ld}
+
+Your bug reports play an essential role in making @code{ld} reliable.
+
+Reporting a bug may help you by bringing a solution to your problem, or
+it may not. But in any case the principal function of a bug report is
+to help the entire community by making the next version of @code{ld}
+work better. Bug reports are your contribution to the maintenance of
+@code{ld}.
+
+In order for a bug report to serve its purpose, you must include the
+information that enables us to fix the bug.
+
+@menu
+* Bug Criteria:: Have you found a bug?
+* Bug Reporting:: How to report bugs
+@end menu
+
+@node Bug Criteria
+@section Have you found a bug?
+@cindex bug criteria
+
+If you are not sure whether you have found a bug, here are some guidelines:
+
+@itemize @bullet
+@cindex fatal signal
+@cindex linker crash
+@cindex crash of linker
+@item
+If the linker gets a fatal signal, for any input whatever, that is a
+@code{ld} bug. Reliable linkers never crash.
+
+@cindex error on valid input
+@item
+If @code{ld} produces an error message for valid input, that is a bug.
+
+@cindex invalid input
+@item
+If @code{ld} does not produce an error message for invalid input, that
+may be a bug. In the general case, the linker can not verify that
+object files are correct.
+
+@item
+If you are an experienced user of linkers, your suggestions for
+improvement of @code{ld} are welcome in any case.
+@end itemize
+
+@node Bug Reporting
+@section How to report bugs
+@cindex bug reports
+@cindex @code{ld} bugs, reporting
+
+A number of companies and individuals offer support for @sc{gnu}
+products. If you obtained @code{ld} from a support organization, we
+recommend you contact that organization first.
+
+You can find contact information for many support companies and
+individuals in the file @file{etc/SERVICE} in the @sc{gnu} Emacs
+distribution.
+
+In any event, we also recommend that you send bug reports for @code{ld}
+to @samp{bug-gnu-utils@@prep.ai.mit.edu}.
+
+The fundamental principle of reporting bugs usefully is this:
+@strong{report all the facts}. If you are not sure whether to state a
+fact or leave it out, state it!
+
+Often people omit facts because they think they know what causes the
+problem and assume that some details do not matter. Thus, you might
+assume that the name of a symbol you use in an example does not matter.
+Well, probably it does not, but one cannot be sure. Perhaps the bug is
+a stray memory reference which happens to fetch from the location where
+that name is stored in memory; perhaps, if the name were different, the
+contents of that location would fool the linker into doing the right
+thing despite the bug. Play it safe and give a specific, complete
+example. That is the easiest thing for you to do, and the most helpful.
+
+Keep in mind that the purpose of a bug report is to enable us to fix the bug if
+it is new to us. Therefore, always write your bug reports on the assumption
+that the bug has not been reported previously.
+
+Sometimes people give a few sketchy facts and ask, ``Does this ring a
+bell?'' Those bug reports are useless, and we urge everyone to
+@emph{refuse to respond to them} except to chide the sender to report
+bugs properly.
+
+To enable us to fix the bug, you should include all these things:
+
+@itemize @bullet
+@item
+The version of @code{ld}. @code{ld} announces it if you start it with
+the @samp{--version} argument.
+
+Without this, we will not know whether there is any point in looking for
+the bug in the current version of @code{ld}.
+
+@item
+Any patches you may have applied to the @code{ld} source, including any
+patches made to the @code{BFD} library.
+
+@item
+The type of machine you are using, and the operating system name and
+version number.
+
+@item
+What compiler (and its version) was used to compile @code{ld}---e.g.
+``@code{gcc-2.7}''.
+
+@item
+The command arguments you gave the linker to link your example and
+observe the bug. To guarantee you will not omit something important,
+list them all. A copy of the Makefile (or the output from make) is
+sufficient.
+
+If we were to try to guess the arguments, we would probably guess wrong
+and then we might not encounter the bug.
+
+@item
+A complete input file, or set of input files, that will reproduce the
+bug. It is generally most helpful to send the actual object files,
+uuencoded if necessary to get them through the mail system. Making them
+available for anonymous FTP is not as good, but may be the only
+reasonable choice for large object files.
+
+If the source files were assembled using @code{gas} or compiled using
+@code{gcc}, then it may be OK to send the source files rather than the
+object files. In this case, be sure to say exactly what version of
+@code{gas} or @code{gcc} was used to produce the object files. Also say
+how @code{gas} or @code{gcc} were configured.
+
+@item
+A description of what behavior you observe that you believe is
+incorrect. For example, ``It gets a fatal signal.''
+
+Of course, if the bug is that @code{ld} gets a fatal signal, then we
+will certainly notice it. But if the bug is incorrect output, we might
+not notice unless it is glaringly wrong. You might as well not give us
+a chance to make a mistake.
+
+Even if the problem you experience is a fatal signal, you should still
+say so explicitly. Suppose something strange is going on, such as, your
+copy of @code{ld} is out of synch, or you have encountered a bug in the
+C library on your system. (This has happened!) Your copy might crash
+and ours would not. If you told us to expect a crash, then when ours
+fails to crash, we would know that the bug was not happening for us. If
+you had not told us to expect a crash, then we would not be able to draw
+any conclusion from our observations.
+
+@item
+If you wish to suggest changes to the @code{ld} source, send us context
+diffs, as generated by @code{diff} with the @samp{-u}, @samp{-c}, or
+@samp{-p} option. Always send diffs from the old file to the new file.
+If you even discuss something in the @code{ld} source, refer to it by
+context, not by line number.
+
+The line numbers in our development sources will not match those in your
+sources. Your line numbers would convey no useful information to us.
+@end itemize
+
+Here are some things that are not necessary:
+
+@itemize @bullet
+@item
+A description of the envelope of the bug.
+
+Often people who encounter a bug spend a lot of time investigating
+which changes to the input file will make the bug go away and which
+changes will not affect it.
+
+This is often time consuming and not very useful, because the way we
+will find the bug is by running a single example under the debugger
+with breakpoints, not by pure deduction from a series of examples.
+We recommend that you save your time for something else.
+
+Of course, if you can find a simpler example to report @emph{instead}
+of the original one, that is a convenience for us. Errors in the
+output will be easier to spot, running under the debugger will take
+less time, and so on.
+
+However, simplification is not vital; if you do not want to do this,
+report the bug anyway and send us the entire test case you used.
+
+@item
+A patch for the bug.
+
+A patch for the bug does help us if it is a good one. But do not omit
+the necessary information, such as the test case, on the assumption that
+a patch is all we need. We might see problems with your patch and decide
+to fix the problem another way, or we might not understand it at all.
+
+Sometimes with a program as complicated as @code{ld} it is very hard to
+construct an example that will make the program follow a certain path
+through the code. If you do not send us the example, we will not be
+able to construct one, so we will not be able to verify that the bug is
+fixed.
+
+And if we cannot understand what bug you are trying to fix, or why your
+patch should be an improvement, we will not install it. A test case will
+help us to understand.
+
+@item
+A guess about what the bug is or what it depends on.
+
+Such guesses are usually wrong. Even we cannot guess right about such
+things without first using the debugger to find the facts.
+@end itemize
+
+@node MRI
+@appendix MRI Compatible Script Files
+@cindex MRI compatibility
+To aid users making the transition to @sc{gnu} @code{ld} from the MRI
+linker, @code{ld} can use MRI compatible linker scripts as an
+alternative to the more general-purpose linker scripting language
+described in @ref{Commands,,Command Language}. MRI compatible linker
+scripts have a much simpler command set than the scripting language
+otherwise used with @code{ld}. @sc{gnu} @code{ld} supports the most
+commonly used MRI linker commands; these commands are described here.
+
+In general, MRI scripts aren't of much use with the @code{a.out} object
+file format, since it only has three sections and MRI scripts lack some
+features to make use of them.
+
+You can specify a file containing an MRI-compatible script using the
+@samp{-c} command-line option.
+
+Each command in an MRI-compatible script occupies its own line; each
+command line starts with the keyword that identifies the command (though
+blank lines are also allowed for punctuation). If a line of an
+MRI-compatible script begins with an unrecognized keyword, @code{ld}
+issues a warning message, but continues processing the script.
+
+Lines beginning with @samp{*} are comments.
+
+You can write these commands using all upper-case letters, or all
+lower case; for example, @samp{chip} is the same as @samp{CHIP}.
+The following list shows only the upper-case form of each command.
+
+@table @code
+@cindex @code{ABSOLUTE} (MRI)
+@item ABSOLUTE @var{secname}
+@itemx ABSOLUTE @var{secname}, @var{secname}, @dots{} @var{secname}
+Normally, @code{ld} includes in the output file all sections from all
+the input files. However, in an MRI-compatible script, you can use the
+@code{ABSOLUTE} command to restrict the sections that will be present in
+your output program. If the @code{ABSOLUTE} command is used at all in a
+script, then only the sections named explicitly in @code{ABSOLUTE}
+commands will appear in the linker output. You can still use other
+input sections (whatever you select on the command line, or using
+@code{LOAD}) to resolve addresses in the output file.
+
+@cindex @code{ALIAS} (MRI)
+@item ALIAS @var{out-secname}, @var{in-secname}
+Use this command to place the data from input section @var{in-secname}
+in a section called @var{out-secname} in the linker output file.
+
+@var{in-secname} may be an integer.
+
+@cindex @code{ALIGN} (MRI)
+@item ALIGN @var{secname} = @var{expression}
+Align the section called @var{secname} to @var{expression}. The
+@var{expression} should be a power of two.
+
+@cindex @code{BASE} (MRI)
+@item BASE @var{expression}
+Use the value of @var{expression} as the lowest address (other than
+absolute addresses) in the output file.
+
+@cindex @code{CHIP} (MRI)
+@item CHIP @var{expression}
+@itemx CHIP @var{expression}, @var{expression}
+This command does nothing; it is accepted only for compatibility.
+
+@cindex @code{END} (MRI)
+@item END
+This command does nothing whatever; it's only accepted for compatibility.
+
+@cindex @code{FORMAT} (MRI)
+@item FORMAT @var{output-format}
+Similar to the @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT} command in the more general linker
+language, but restricted to one of these output formats:
+
+@enumerate
+@item
+S-records, if @var{output-format} is @samp{S}
+
+@item
+IEEE, if @var{output-format} is @samp{IEEE}
+
+@item
+COFF (the @samp{coff-m68k} variant in BFD), if @var{output-format} is
+@samp{COFF}
+@end enumerate
+
+@cindex @code{LIST} (MRI)
+@item LIST @var{anything}@dots{}
+Print (to the standard output file) a link map, as produced by the
+@code{ld} command-line option @samp{-M}.
+
+The keyword @code{LIST} may be followed by anything on the
+same line, with no change in its effect.
+
+@cindex @code{LOAD} (MRI)
+@item LOAD @var{filename}
+@itemx LOAD @var{filename}, @var{filename}, @dots{} @var{filename}
+Include one or more object file @var{filename} in the link; this has the
+same effect as specifying @var{filename} directly on the @code{ld}
+command line.
+
+@cindex @code{NAME} (MRI)
+@item NAME @var{output-name}
+@var{output-name} is the name for the program produced by @code{ld}; the
+MRI-compatible command @code{NAME} is equivalent to the command-line
+option @samp{-o} or the general script language command @code{OUTPUT}.
+
+@cindex @code{ORDER} (MRI)
+@item ORDER @var{secname}, @var{secname}, @dots{} @var{secname}
+@itemx ORDER @var{secname} @var{secname} @var{secname}
+Normally, @code{ld} orders the sections in its output file in the
+order in which they first appear in the input files. In an MRI-compatible
+script, you can override this ordering with the @code{ORDER} command. The
+sections you list with @code{ORDER} will appear first in your output
+file, in the order specified.
+
+@cindex @code{PUBLIC} (MRI)
+@item PUBLIC @var{name}=@var{expression}
+@itemx PUBLIC @var{name},@var{expression}
+@itemx PUBLIC @var{name} @var{expression}
+Supply a value (@var{expression}) for external symbol
+@var{name} used in the linker input files.
+
+@cindex @code{SECT} (MRI)
+@item SECT @var{secname}, @var{expression}
+@itemx SECT @var{secname}=@var{expression}
+@itemx SECT @var{secname} @var{expression}
+You can use any of these three forms of the @code{SECT} command to
+specify the start address (@var{expression}) for section @var{secname}.
+If you have more than one @code{SECT} statement for the same
+@var{secname}, only the @emph{first} sets the start address.
@end table
+@node Index
+@unnumbered Index
+
+@printindex cp
+
+@tex
+% I think something like @colophon should be in texinfo. In the
+% meantime:
+\long\def\colophon{\hbox to0pt{}\vfill
+\centerline{The body of this manual is set in}
+\centerline{\fontname\tenrm,}
+\centerline{with headings in {\bf\fontname\tenbf}}
+\centerline{and examples in {\tt\fontname\tentt}.}
+\centerline{{\it\fontname\tenit\/} and}
+\centerline{{\sl\fontname\tensl\/}}
+\centerline{are used for emphasis.}\vfill}
+\page\colophon
+% Blame: doc@cygnus.com, 28mar91.
+@end tex
+
+@contents
@bye
projects / deliverable / binutils-gdb.git / blobdiff